Corporate Strategy Analysis Discussion Essay

The Destination CEO videos offered a great insight into the lives of the people that have to run the huge organizations. It seems as if all of them have been faced with a challenge somewhere within their careers. The following paper will discuss the different corporate strategies: growth, stability, and renewal. It will also discuss how each CEO used the planning function of management which are concentration, vertical integration, and diversification. I agreed with my teammates discussions of the CEOs of the companies. We discussed four CEOs: Neville Isdell, Coca-Cola CEO, Gary Kelly, Southwest Airline CEO, Mackey McDonald, VF Corporation CEO, and Anne Mulcahy, Xerox CEO. The corporate strategy that was used by Neville Isdell is growth and the planning function used is diversification. This is due to the fact that he is seeking to branch out by selling non-carbonated beverages. Such as Coca-Cola Black, a coffee and buying all or part of vitamin water from Glasso. The corporate strategies used by Gary Kelly are growth and stability, and planning function of management is concentration. The reason for this is locking up the hedge fund contracts, and keeping cost down. Continuing to fly the same planes (737) so that parts and maintenance are easy is a great strategy. He also promotes treating customers like kings and queens, and employees even better! The corporate strategy used by Mackey McDonald is growth and the planning function is vertical integration and concentration. This is because of the focus on their lifestyle brands, such as Vans and Reef. They avoid getting involved in the high risk fashion brands & stayed with the commodity brands. Concentrate more on what the consumer would use every day. The corporate strategy used by Anne Mulcahy is renewal and the planning function is concentration. She took over when Xerox was on the brink of bankruptcy. She had to cut cost to be able to make the company successful. She even had to shut down the division that she herself had started (Destination CEO video). Kathleen McWain wrote, â€Å"Neville Isdell or the Indiana Jones of Coke displayed innovation and commitment to employee morale. Isdell handled flat sales growth, low morale and high turnover with  aggressive globalization. Coca-Cola decided to be a total beverage company introducing Dasani water and Fuze tea. Isdell convinced his board that just because Pepsi had branched into other markets successful Coke needed to go more towards global domination than diversification. Cokes sales are no longer sluggish, moral is high and employee turn over is low. I applaud Gary Kelly’s fuel hedge fund and that he is keeping Southwest airlines in the black. His flying in coach to experience what his passenger do gives Mr. Kelly a better insight into how his company runs, which I feel really helps him make tough resource allocation calls. That being said I do not think that Mr. Kelly’s Band-Aid patch of Southwest’s underfunded, profit destroying, pension plan dealt with the problem. (all pension plans paid after the employee retires are profit destroyers) I think it only delayed the fact that either the pension plan needs to be funded or pensioners must have their pensions reduced. As Southwest is not the only underfunded pension plan in the country. I feel Southwest is waiting to see if another company is successful in reducing pension payments to retirees. I also feel that as soon as a company is successful in either dumping or strongly cutting pensioners pay other companies will follow and it will be like domino falling.† As stated in the introduction, my team wrote the same things about the videos. The CEOs of each company made the same impact on us all. They stories of the CEOs and what they went they endured, and in some cases still enduring, is motivational. I personally would have probably given up by now. However, the most motivational one to me is Anne Mulcahy, because she took a company on the brink of bankruptcy and turned Xerox around into a powerhouse. How awesome is that! References Bateman, T. (2011). Management: Leading and Collaborating in a Competitve World(9th ed.). Retrieved from http//: www.ecampus.phoenix.edu. Destination CEO Videos

Childhood and Adulthood

Men face various phases of life. From being just a little fetus inside the mother’s womb, to being a toddler, a child, a teenager and then an adult, these phases are all being faced by any man and woman. And each phase is equally challenging as the others†¦ challenging for both the person him/herself and the people around him/her who have been watching and guiding him/her all the way.The most compared among these phases are childhood and adulthood. This is not only because these two phases are entirely opposite in terms physical attributes of the person himself, but also because of the number of other aspects which all seem to be on opposite sides. But, it is also worth considering that however opposite these two may look like, there are still worth noting similarities that are evident in the people going through these phases.Childhood and Adulthood DifferencesChildhood covers the age between 2-17 years old for women and 2-20 years old for men. Adulthood, on the other han d, starts when the person reaches maturity and that’s 18 years old for women and 2 years old for the men. But the difference is not merely on the numbers as there is more to it than that.During childhood years, the person seems to cling and acting like totally dependent to the people around him. The parents, older brothers or sisters, aunts, uncles and even the older neighbors will serve will be looked up to by the child.They will be the people whom the child will depend in terms of the most basic needs he has such as food, clothing, shelter, education and much more. Whereas the adults, they are more dependent onto themselves alone. The already learned how to feed themselves and even look for the means where he can get his own food. Even his clothing is not provided by anyone else but himself alone.Much more, at this phase of his life, he may already have a shelter of his own or he is already saving for one. At the same time, the basic educational level – primary and s econdary – is already finished and its either he is finished or almost finished with the tertiary level. This would mean that he can be a university student, a university graduate or already part of the country’s workforce.In terms of responsibilities, there is also a big difference between childhood and adulthood. During childhood, the person himself is not accountable to anything. It will be his parents or his guardians who will be responsible for whatever actions he may commit o whatever decisions he will made.In fact, the child is normally no allowed to do any decision by himself. He is always guided and looked upon to. Wherever he may go, he needs to ask his parents’ or guardians’ permission. Whatever he wants to do, may it be for his life or for his things, he will need to consult his parents and/or guardians first.If in times he commits mistakes, it will be his guardians or his parents who will take the blame. And they are the very people who will teach the child on how to learn from such mistakes. In the same manner, if in moments of challenging times wherein the child commit some deviant behaviors making him to sway away from the righteous parts, it will be the parents or the guardians who will be accountable for such deviant acts because it would seem that they have not given the right moral education for the child.To sum up, during the phase of childhood, it will be the guardians’ and/or the parents’ responsibility to hone the child according to the society’s moral standards and they will be the very people ho will hold sole responsibility for the child – his actions, ways of thinking etc.Meanwhile, as for the adulthood, the exact opposite happens. The person who just reached maturity and adult phase of his life will then have to be accountable for all his actions and decisions. He will now be the one to decide for himself and even for the little ones who are now looking up to him. He will have to decide what he wants to do with his life.He will be deciding whether to continue working or not. He will be deciding whether to move and build a house of his own or stay where e is right now. Every big and little decision will be entirely on his shoulders during this stage.Not only that, he may need to take responsibility for making decisions for other people who are now depending on him. Because he just reach the age where he may have his own family and kids, he needs to ensure that not only himself is safe from troubles and problems, he must take into consideration his own kids and other family members. In short, as one reaches adulthood, it would mean that the person himself is accountable for himself and other people.It would seem that he will be returning the favor that his parents or guardians did when he was just o the childhood phase. Now it will be his time to serve as the role model for the youngsters. Now it will be his time to take the blame when he did something sha meful and deviant. Now it will be his time to be responsible for the wrongdoings that his kids may have done.In terms of financials, there is also very big difference. Because during the childhood phase, the child is not responsible to anything, it just a common tendency that he will no be worrying about the money. Thus, he would just want to buy things (with his guardians’ or parents’ permission of course) without thinking of where to get the money or what will happen for the future.Whereas when he reaches adulthood, he will tend to be very practical in terms of financial consumption. This is brought by the fact that he is the one earning and will have to be responsible whether he will have enough saved money. He will need to learn to prioritize things which item is necessary, which item is just for luxury, etc.SimilaritiesAs for the similarities, most will be on the psychological part. The likes and dislikes of the person facing the different phase of his life may st ay the same. Like for example, if the child dislikes some things or have some phobias over some things, this dislike and/or fear will remain until he reaches adulthood.Also it is very typical for the child to act like an adult during role-playing while it is also typical for adults to act childlike some times during the adulthood. Thus, this sows that whether childhood or adulthood phase, the person himself is accepting what may lie ahead in the future or what he was when he was just a child.ConclusionIndeed, there is a big difference between childhood and adulthood. The physical appearance definitely changes. The level of responsibility grows from nothing to everything.The awareness of financial accountabilities changes from being guided upon to being the driver or the person-in-charge. It is really a big change that every person faces as he moves on with his life. Bu however challenging and different each phase may be, each phase is always worth looking forward to.

Production analysis and strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Production analysis and strategy - Essay Example sand units every day, our production strategy was diverted to other initiatives to ensure profitability; we commenced carefully controlling prices, intensified marketing & product promotion and more importantly also concentrated on repaying our loan. Improvements in the lean manufacturing were particularly useful when we needed to switch production and therefore expended some significant amounts on the strategy. There were very few changeovers; we switched to the production of 500g varieties. Lean manufacturing also played an advantageous role by allowing the exploitation less competitive areas quicker than the other companies. We also spent a lot on production which translated to a high capacity in production; eventually this was one of our greatest competitive edge as compared to the other firms in the market place. When competition started cutting into our margins, we were able to maintain volumes in sales thanks to our strategies of continued diversification, investment in marketing & product promotion and strategic pricing. We therefore maintained a steady production and sales volumes despite the entry of other firms in the market. A critical factor in our strategy was production capacity; a steady and increasing production capacity gave us the much needed economies of scale. We managed therefore to spread costs through higher production capacities with net effect of reduced cost of production. With the increasing production capacity and reducing costs of production our team should be able to keep up with customer demands and also venture into new markets. Strategic gaps can be seen more especially with the decreasing production capacities of team D and this is therefore a potential markets for future entry. In the framework of VRIN analysis, our production capacity proved to have a very high value as it presented us with a unique opportunity to venture into underserved markets. We therefore were in a position give value to customers by ensuring their

Lean Operations (Future State Design) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Lean Operations (Future State Design) - Essay Example At first the rationale and importance of this proposal is discussed with a reference to the previous task of the Manufacturing Director and the circumstances surrounding the recent appointment of a new Manufacturing Director. Then a description of the tasks that have been assigned to the Manufacturing Director for the completion of this assignment is given. After this the areas of concern regarding the requirements of the task have been discussed. Using the understanding of these areas of concern, the Manufacturing Director devises a comprehensive new strategy to address the organisational issues facing the company. In this document a Cellular Manufacturing system of production is proposed for implementation as Crockwood Seat Suppliers’ new work flow system. ... The company has recently suffered great losses and is in danger of having to shed almost forty five percent of its work-force in twelve months according to the current trend because of dwindling customer demand. The manufacturer has contracts with two other firms, namely Lanchester Steels Ltd and Coventry Covers, for the supply of the two required raw materials – sheet metal and seat cover rolls. All production processes of the vehicle seats are performed at the company’s shop floor except for plating for which the company contracts a metal works firm as it does not have the capability. In the previous part of the project, the Manufacturing Director assessed the current state of working of Crockwood Seat Suppliers. He was appointed to improve the fortunes of the company which was losing not only money but also customers due to the inefficiencies in its functioning. The two main areas of concern for the customer with regard to the company CSS are firstly the enormous lea d time which means that the customer has to wait around 51 days from the placement of the order for the delivery; this is unacceptable not only for a majority of large-scale automotive manufacturers but also for, the smaller-scale, spare parts dealerships (â€Å"Dubai's automotive spare parts trade worth AED 37 billion†, 2013). And secondly the disparity of cycle times for different manufacturing processes which causes a neglect of the Takt time (Linck 1999, p. 5) which must be adhered to in order to meet the demands rate. Also the disparity in the EPEI (Feld 2001) of different processes is causing a waste of human capital as twenty percent of skilled workers have very little work to do, though

The Difficulty of Implementation of the Electronic Health Record and Research Paper

The Difficulty of Implementation of the Electronic Health Record and Ethical Dilemmas of Its Use - Research Paper Example The system can also be used for retrieval of the personal and medical history of the patient. The introduction of such systems has helped the doctors remain up to date about their patients in a much more accurate and easier way. There are many advantages of using the electronic medical record system. The data is centralized and whenever a need arises the data of the related patient can be accessed without any delay. The use of the electronic medical record system also helps when a doctor has suggested some tests for the patient. When the patient gets them done at a laboratory and there is any delay in the retrieval of the records in the printed form, the physician can access the reports through the electronic medical system and therefore there is no delay. It has been seen in many laboratories that there usually is a back log of reports to be printed and the introduction of the system can help get rid of this issue. If we compare the electronic medical record system with the paper re cording system the first major advantage that exists is the storage space. Paper filing system requires a lot of space while the electronic system has no issue (KUTNEY-LEE AND KELLY, 2011). Many physicians who practice privately are not so keen in using the electronic medical record system as they are of the view that as their practice is small and they already do not have a lot of patients, the system would be quite expensive for them and would not prove to be economical. There have been many studies conducted to identify whether the electronic system is effective and at the same cost effective across the whole of the medical circuit. It has been derived from all of the study that has been conducted that the electronic medical record system proves to be cost effective for only large hospitals whereas small clinics and private physicians will find it expensive and in some cases even hard on their finances. Despite many criticisms on the electronic medical record system, many big hos pitals have adopted the system and also connected with each other through a local area network. This corroboration between the hospitals will enhance the medical research that is being carried out as they can share information and data over a secure network without any fear of losing the data or the falling of data in the wrong hands. Some of the big hospitals who have many centers located in different areas use this system to the highest effectiveness as they share medical reports, medicinal data and other information over secure network. The carrying cost of files and paper work from one place to the other is reduced and the data is shared without any hassle and that too in real time. The sharing of the data is a lot easier through the Electronic medical recording system (WATKINS, HASKELL, LUNDBERG, BROKEL, WILSON AND HARDIKER, 2009). CRITICISM There are quite a lot of advantages of using the electronic medical record system but there are still some issues related to cost effectiv eness and security that has made hospital managements vary of implementing the Electronic medical recording system. The concern over security is one of the most pressing issues in the case of Electronic medical recording. The issue is a serious one as many practitioners as well as patients feel that the data is not safe as people have access to it in a much easier way as compared to the paper records (JHA, BURKE, DESROSCHES, JOSHI, KRALOVEC,

Discuss the problems developing countries encounter in international Essay

Discuss the problems developing countries encounter in international trade in key sectors (i.e. agriculture, industry and services) - Essay Example Some internal problems include high cost of production, tariffs of inputs and There are various problems that developing countries face in international trade which will be discussed; this paper also provides possible solutions to these problems of trade. Some of the problems include trade barriers, unfavorable terms of trade, high quality standards, A large portion of GDP in developing countries depend on agriculture, agriculture helps in providing food to the population, providing employment and surplus is exported to other countries. Foreign income highly depends on agricultural products exported and also tourism, however agriculture plays an important role in these countries in providing employment and food, there are various problems that these developing countries face in this sector and they include: High tariffs are imposed on imports in international trade; tariffs are a source of revenue to the government but at the same time they restrict the level of imports in a country, the agricultural sector in developing countries are faced with this problem because their good become more expensive in the internal market due to imposed tariffs. The tariffs will reduce the amo... Bans and quotas are also trade barriers that cause problems in internal trade, in the case of quota the developing countries are only required to export a certain quantity to country, this is a major draw back to the agricultural sector in the developing countries. High input costs: Most developing countries import inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and oil, their cost in the internal market are usually high and some producers cannot afford these costs, for this reason therefore the cost of producing the agricultural products is usually very high making the final price for these products to be high. Therefore the high cost of inputs will lead to an increase in the cost of production, the final price of the agricultural products is usually very high and therefore less competitive in the internal market, for this reason therefore the agricultural products are usually less demanded in the internal market due to competition from more efficient producers. Oil is also a major input in production in each and every sector in an economy, the developing countries in most cases will import oil from developed countries where prices fluctuate frequently, and the cost of oil will lead to an increase in the cost of production of these products leading to less competitive prices in the internal market. Subsidies: Many countries subsidize their agricultural sector in order for them to produce more, this has posed a major problem to the developing countries that cannot afford to subsidize its agricultural sector, subsidizing of agricultural production in developed countries result into a reduction in the cost of production and therefore the country demand less imports. Subsidies therefore will create problems to the

Seminar issues in hospital Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Seminar issues in hospital - Case Study Example A human resource unit must develop the skills and potential of an organization. Recent research indicates that career development and a challenging work environment is a priority for most employees (Griffin, 2015). They must create individual development plans for every position in the organization. In addition, this development needs evaluation and measurement to identify the satisfaction level of its workforce. The organization can use some devices to reduce the workforce. Succession planning is essential to ensure that the remaining employees can comfortably handle the remaining work. A voluntary exit incentive program is a useful device to ensure a smooth transition of laid-off employees out of the organization (Hopeman, 2003). Two years is a long enough period to ensure that the program is successful in an organization. Another device is the use of a forced ranking system, in which the abilities of the workforce are ranked according to their skills, and other factors such as length of stay in the organization, and performance (Hopeman, 2003). The human resource department is the most suited unit to implement the two devices in a fair manner. A voluntary exit incentive program is cheaper than a forced ranking system. A forced ranking system is a complex process that involves observation, collection, and analysis of

Internet Literacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Internet Literacy - Assignment Example There are various forms of plagiarism in academia. For instance, submitting somebody else’s work as original work is a form of plagiarism. Another aspect of plagiarism is using quotations and not citing the source (Espinel, 2011). This law tries to encourage creation of culture and art through rewarding artists and authors with a set of rights. The law grants artists and authors the exclusive right to create and sell their works. Due to petitions filed by many authors 1783, the law was passed to give them protection against infringement of their literary property. In many countries, the law basically protects the original works of authorship. The works are fixed in a tangible medium. The media includes artistic, musical, dramatic and other types of intellectual works. The law include musical, architectural, sound recording, pictorial and literary works (Espinel, 2011). During the Constitutional Convention held in 1787, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina and James Madison of Virginia submitted proposals for the granting of copy right for limited time. The proposals made by the two are the origin of the Copyright Clause found in the U.S Constitution (Espinel, 2011). A trademark is a word, symbol, design, name, or a combination of all. They are used in commerce in distinguishing goods of different manufacturers or sellers. They also indicate the sources of the goods. In history, blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are the ones who first used the trademarks. Today, different countries have passed laws to govern trademark. The laws require the registration of the

Tourism Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Tourism Law - Case Study Example In short, Kate from the case had to be compensated for the damages the breweries caused her. In cases that entail breech of a company’s contract to ensure its products are to the expected standards is usually an offence. In this case, Kate even after suing the company would not be compensated since her friend also took the drink and did not get sick2. This case is similar to the case Donoghue and Stevenson. In this case, Donoghue had been served a ginger beer that contained snail in it3. In Bethany Cafà ©, he drank it a he later was reported to have become really seek to the extent of getting into shock. Donoghue after recovery from the hosp sued the manufacturer in Paisley, David Stevenson for damage fee worth 500 Euros4. In the case, Donoghue did not receive his compensation since at that time; the ginger beer was well named and the beer did not harm his friend which had ordered the drink for him. This case bears resemblance to Kate’s case and would basically end in the same

Childhood Obesity in the US Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Childhood Obesity in the US - Research Paper Example There is no agreement on the definition of childhood obesity. The Body Mass Index remains the most commonly used method to measure obesity. Other professionals also assert that a 20% higher weight of an individual of a certain height and age constitutes obesity. Others also maintain more than 25% for boys and 32% in girls (Emedicine Health, n.d). Obesity is not a problem of the under developed world. People in third world countries face the problem of malnutrition. Obesity, therefore poses health risks to the lives of people in the industrialized world. In United States alone, sixty percent of adults and fifteen percent of children come under the definition of obesity (Tessmer, Hagen, Beecher, 2006). The health hazards related to obesity create problems not only for adults, but also for children (Caprio et. al., 2008). The issue of childhood obesity remains a very challenging one. The problem of childhood obesity is of increasing prevalence. Obesity does not only affect the weight of a person, it destroys the self-esteem of a person. â€Å"Diabetes, high blood pressure, heart diseases, and depression are some of the dangerous risks of obesity† (Tessmer, Hagen, & Beecher, 2006). Different reasons are associated for this ever-increasing problem. The paper attempts to discuss those various factors. Certain factors that deserve due respect include that of cultural factors, biological factors and socioeconomic ones, as mentioned in the topic. However, these factors are not solely responsible for obesity. Specifically, parental influences and attitudes also account for an increase in youth Obesity. Many experts claim that the environment that individuals live in play an important part in determining the lifestyle of a certain person. The environment consists of culture. Sociologically, culture is a system formed by a common understanding. It also shapes the perspectives of different individuals inhibiting a certain society. With regard to obesity, different cultures have different interpretations. Some may consider obesity as a health problem, while others may not. Culture also shapes the eating and working habits of individuals (Caprio et. al., 2008). Illness and deviance form a major part of culture, therefore obesity has a strong cultural background. In some societies, obesity may come under consideration of deviance. Deviance is a divergence from certain norms and values of the society. Different ethnic groups also form different societies within a certain society, in this case the United States. Different cultural factors of various ethnic groups play a major role in a div erse society such as the US. In a country like United States, which supports different types of ethnic groups, different perspectives are most likely to occur. Culture variation therefore occurs due to migration. In addition, in the increasingly globalised world of today, culture has had a profound impact. Certain eating habits have developed because of increased international trade. Promotional food marketing has also occurred due to increased communication. Such patterns have contributed to unhealthy eating habits in the US (Caprio et. al., 2008). Values remain an important part of the culture of different societies. Although the definition of body size is generalized, different ethnic groups and populations have different perceptions about body size. Different ethnic groups reside in the US, for example, African Americans, Fijians, and sub-Saharan Africans among others. Generally, these groups prefer larger body sizes compared to Europeans. Therefore, perceptions of obesity diffe r. These perceptions have led to an increase in child obesity

US-China Trade History 1980-Present Essay Example for Free

US-China Trade History 1980-Present Essay US -China relations became a breakthrough in history in 1979 when both countries came together and diplomatically ensued a positive political and economic future. A small but well beginning started in 1980 when U. S. -China trade was $2 billion, which was the summation of both imports and exports. At the time China was the United States’ 48th largest source of imports and 23rd largest export market. U. S. -China trade in the past 30 years has dramatically increased ever since. U. S. -China trade in 1981 rose from $5 billion to $503 billion in 2011. As of now China is the United States’ second biggest trading partner (behind Canada), third biggest export market (Canada being first, Mexico second), and number one source of imports. In 1985 the U. S. trade deficit with China was $0 billion with U. S. imports equaling U. S. exports to China. Being that U. S. imports from China are higher and are now increasing more than U. S. exports to China; the U. S. merchandise trade deficit has risen from $10 billion in 1990 to $296 billion in 2011. Today China currently now owns the title of having the single highest U. S. rade balance deficit (with the combined world economy leading ahead China). With OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) being second the highest, and the European Union with its 27 members being third; their combined U. S. trade balance deficit being $237. 8 billion is still no match for China’s nearly $296 billion in today’s economy. China is trading more than ever and has become a big player in the global export market. At their peak of economic growth, cheap labor is their primitive and the key to what makes their exports so attractive to foreigners. The United States, once the world’s leader of exports is now the third largest global exporter following behind Germany and China. The United States and other advanced countries are now struggling to compete with China and those other developing nations who utilize their low wage comparative advantage in manufacturing. From what looked like an unpredictable beginning for the United States and China now appears to be an economic complexity for both parties and the global economy. Beneficiaries of U. S. -China Current and Potential Trade As China’s rapidly economy grows, the standard of living of its people dealistically will too. With a determined future full of growth China is aiming to modernize and innovate itself as an advanced nation. According to the Boeing Corporation â€Å"Boeing Corporation predicts that over the next 20 years (2011-2030), China will buy 5,000 new commercial airplanes valued at $600 billion and will be Boeing’s largest commercial airplane customer outside the United States†. Besides purchasing American prestige airlines, China will also have to improve its infrastructure. In the process it must buy raw materials from the global market in order to build new roads, buildings, and etc. New homes will be built along with suburban neighborhoods filled with middle income citizens. Their demand for home appliances and personal entities will increase private consumption among the population. According to a report by the Boston Consulting Group, â€Å"in 2009, China had 148 million middle class and affluent consumers, defined as those whose annual household income was 60,000 RMB ($9,160) or higher, and that level is projected to rise to 415 million by 2020†. The rise in China’s middle class will be a targeted market for American companies thus creating future export opportunities for the United States. As stated on the GM website â€Å"For the first time in its history, General Motors (GM) in 2010 sold more cars and trucks in China (at 2. 35 million units) than it did in the United States (2. 21 million units). In 2011, GM sold 2. 55 million vehicles in China (up 8. 3% over 2010 levels) versus 2. 50 million in the United States. GM in China currently has 11 joint ventures and two wholly owned foreign enterprises and employs more than 35,000 workers†. China’s growing economy and large population of over 1. 3 billion people make it a potentially enormous market for the world and most importantly the United States. China is currently a $200 billion market for U. S. firms making it a crucial part of the U. S. economy. The top Chinese exports to the United States in 2011 were communications equipment, computer equipment, clothes, semiconductors, and manufactured goods such as toys and games. American businesses that receive Chinese imports thrive and maximize their profits because of their ability produce their product cheap at the expense of low wage labor in China. This allows them to lower costs of their product giving them a more competitive edge in the global market. Not only has trade with China over recent history benefitted entrepreneurs but American consumers as well. Wal-Mart for example sells mostly Chinese made products at a very low price. American consumers benefit greatly because of this and it allows them to buy more for less. As a result, United States trade with China has benefitted both economies throughout the course of their trading history. According to some economist, if there are economic reforms in China the United States will soon benefit from an upcoming available Chinese middle class market. World Trade Organization After 15 years of diplomatic issues that started in 1986, China in 2001 finally became a member of the international trading system. Once a member, China agreed to: a) Reduce the average tariff for industrial goods from 17% to 8. 9% and average tariffs on U. S. priority agricultural products from 31% to 14%. b) Regularly address the WTO of government subsidies it provides. c) In three years’ time after becoming a member it must give full trade and distribution rights to foreign enterprises. ) Provide equal treatment to all WTO members by treating foreign firms in China the same as to those domestic firms in China. e) End discriminatory trade policies against foreign invested firms in China regarding domestic content rules and technology transfer requirements f) Implement the WTO’s Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement upon entry g) Fully open its banking system to foreign financial institutions by the end of 200 6 and h) Allow joint ventures in insurance and telecommunication. In all, the intention for Chinas’ entry was good, giving hope that it would become a more dependable and secure trading partner for the United States. U. S. trade officials argue that in the first years after its entry to the WTO, China made steady progress in adopting economic reforms that promoted its conversion toward a market economy by increasing openness to trade. Nevertheless in 2006 China’s improvement towards a free market appeared to have digressed. U. S. government and business officials realized that by 2008 China began implementing a more restrictive trade strategy among its regime. Signs of China’s failure to implement WTO agreements were noticed as China began: a) discriminating against foreign firms, while continuing to promote Chinese industrial policies and national standards b) failing to meet restrictions regarding trading and distribution rights and c) discriminating on which imports to enforce health and safety rules. In May of 2012 President Obama proposed to create a new trade enforcement unit that will facilitate unfair trading practices in major exporting countries such as China. This may eventually give rise to the amount of dispute settlement cases in the WTO against China. Conclusion The emergence of developing nations as well as some advanced nations created a window of opportunity for United States’ exports. The world’s global capitalism movement lead by the United States has helped those who wanted an American style of living by obtaining it through China’s contirbution to manufacture American goods at a low cost. The growth and expansion of American multinational corporations is due to outsourcing U.  S. manufacturing jobs to China. This has benefitted the Chinese rural population by the creation of jobs in poverty stricken areas. Even though the jobs created are low waged and offer little to no worker safety, one must realize opportunity for a better life for those who are willing to work in China. Over the course of 30 years of U. S –China trade, Americans have gained more than they have lost as a result of China’s low cost exports (whether some Americans they like to admit it or not). Analysts around the world are now providing evidence that China’s middle class is growing as rapid as its economy. With U. S. -China trade expected to grow in the next 20 years, many economic reforms in China must first be dealt with in order to secure the stability of China’s demanding middle class. China is now being seen as a potentially huge U. S. export destination and because of this Americans will soon benefit from the creation of the millions of capital based jobs in the United States in the upcoming future.

Theories of Firm Internationalisation

Theories of Firm Internationalisation Firms internationalisation decisions can be driven by various motives, taking this into account, discuss in particular the choice of a firm of how to internationalise its production activities in terms of a trade off between ownership and market transactions. After the World War II, there has been rapid growth in international trade in both goods and services, resulting in various transactions across national borders for the purpose of satisfying the needs of individuals and organisations. The result of this global competition has forced organisations to expand their business by finding out new markets at home and foreign countries making them ‘Transnational firms. Dicken (2007) defines Transnational Corporations (TNC) as â€Å"A firm that has power to co-ordinate and control operations in more than one country, even if it does not own them†. Rugman and Hodgetts, 2003 says Multinational corporations, defined as â€Å"A company headquarter in one country but having operations in other countries†. The significance of TNC lies mainly in its ability to co-ordinate and control different transactions within transnational production networks, ability to take advantage of distribution factors of production and ability to be fl exible in locations. The growing TNCs led to various patterns and trends in international business like rapid growth in world trade and investment, cross border mergers and acquisitions resulting in the process of Internationalization. Internationalization is the process of increasing involvement in international operations across national borders which comprises both changed perspectives and positions. (Buckley and Ghauri, 1999) Internationalization is one potential strategy that is being used increasingly by business firms to maximise size of the firm, increase their profitability, increasing their market share and becoming industry leader. It is a major attribute of the current strategy process of most business firms which determines the ongoing development and change in the international firm in terms of values, scope, principles, business ideas, action orientation, nature of work and converging norms. The internationalization dimension is related to all these aspects of the strategy process and thus making the firms become ‘Transnational. In this global competition, it is important for the firm to become transnational and internationalization process focuses mainly on the development of the individual firm on its gradual acquisition, integration, and use of knowledge about foreign markets and operations. (Dicken, P., 2007) Firms internationalization decision is mainly to acquire profits. The origins of the internationalisation of the industry are described by both macroeconomics approach, regarded as a general-system approach which is focused on the capitalist system as a whole, and microeconomics approach, based upon a firm-specific level. In a macroeconomics approach, the expansions of firms activities into foreign countries are explained by the circuits of capital and the theory of new international division of labour. A microeconomics approach entails the Dunnings eclectic paradigm and the theory of product life cycle. As most TNCs are capitalist enterprises, they behave according to basic rules of capitalism, the ways in which firm acquires profits along with various motives like increasing their market share, becoming industry leader or simply making firm bigger. But above all, the most important factor for internationalization is the pursuit of profits. In this competitive economy, competition b etween firms is becoming increasingly global and much more volatile not just confining them to national level but with firms across the world. Thus TNCs simply explain the need for internationalization at macro level in pursuit of profits and performance better in the global competitive economy. (Dicken, P., 1992) The new international division of labour, proposed by Stephen Hymer, is used to explain the shift of industrial production from the core (the industrialised countries) to the periphery (the developing countries). Firms in developed countries due to increasing wages in their home countries are forced to seek the alternative locations providing cheap labour, which are the third world countries. Dicken (1992) points out that even though this concept has some validity in explanation of internationalisation process, it also contains several drawbacks as it is excessively narrow and one-dimensional and it overstates the extent to which industrial production has been relocated to the global periphery. Micro level approach is an approach to understand the internationalization of economic activity through the TNC which is much as firm specific. The decision to become global firm is made by individual firms or more by decision makers in the firm rather than focusing upon the decisions at capitalist system as a whole like in macro level approach. According to Hymers pioneering study in 1960, domestic firms will have natural advantage over foreign firms in terms of better understanding of local market conditions and business environment. But, a foreign firm wishing to produce in any other market would have to posses some firm specific assets which overcome the natural advantages of domestic firm. These firm specific assets are like size of the firm and economies of scale, access to raw materials, marketing skills, technological expertise, reduced transaction costs or access to cheaper sources of finance, which makes a foreign firm to compete domestic firm in its home country. Hymers st udy expressed that the firm wishing in transnational production would have its own set of qualifying principles specific to ownership which overcome the advantages of indigenous firms in the country of production. (Nilsson, J.E, Dicken, P., Peck, J., 1996) In 1966, Vernon developed the product life cycle to explain the observed pattern of international trade. The theory suggests that in the earlier stages of products life cycle all the production activities of a product is done in the place in which it was invented. Once the product is used in the markets, production gradually moves away from the point of origin to the places with low production costs and high market activity, in order to acquire high profits by the firm. There are four stages in product life cycle: Introduction, growth, maturity and decline. The location of production depends on the stage of the cycle. In the introduction stage the firm seeks to build product awareness and develop a market for the product. In the growth stage, the firm tries to increase brand preference and market share. At maturity stage, the strong growth in sales decreases due to heavy competition between similar products. At this stage the primary objective of the firm is to defend the market shar es by expanding into new markets or low developing countries (LDCs) to maximize profits. In the final stage, due to decline in the sales, the firm tries to maintain the product by adding new features and targeting new markets. (Dicken 2003) According to Dunnings Eclectic Paradigm, a firm will engage in international production when each of the following three conditions is present: 1. Owner specific advantages, 2. Location specific advantages and 3. Internalization advantages. As the three principles are derived from variety of theoretical approaches such as the theory of the firm, organization theory, trade theory and location theory, dunning labelled his approach as ‘eclectic which integrates various strands of explanation of international production. Owner specific advantages or Firm specific advantages are assets which are internal to firm. Every firm must possess certain ownership specific advantages which are unique compared to their competing firms from other countries. These firm specific advantages are intangible and transferred within the TNC at low cost (e.g., technology, brand name, and benefits of economies of scale) which either provides higher revenues or lower costs that can reduce operating costs compared to its competitors in a foreign country.(Wattanasupachoke, 2002) A firm must possess location specific advantages to exploit its assets in foreign rather than domestic country. Therefore the location specific advantages of different countries are important in determining which will become host countries for the transnational corporations. They constitute economic, political and socio cultural advantages which are important factors in the context of transnational production. (Wattanasupachoke 2002) Transnational corporations choose internalization where the market does not exist or functions poorly. There must be internalization advantages to the firm from exploiting its advantages itself, rather than selling them or leasing them. The more uncertain the environment faced by the firm (which may be due to price, quality and availability of raw materials) the more likely a firm internalize its operations. Internalization occurs in the case of knowledge and technology, where many firms spend huge sums of money on various research and development. To ensure satisfactory returns on the investment without selling or leasing the technology to other foreign firms, the firm itself exploits its technological advantage directly by setting up its own production facilities. (Whitley, R., 1994) Under ‘eclectic theory other theories of internationalization are more concerned with the processes that a firm must go through. Sequential theory of internationalization is a process in which a firm enters into the foreign market. It is also called as ‘Uppsala model and the firm enters other markets through four discrete stages: Intermittent exports, exports via agents and through licensing, overseas sales through knowledge agreements with local firms (example franchising) and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the foreign market. Initially, the firm is purely a domestic firm in terms of both production and markets. Once the firm reaches saturation point in its domestic market, it looks into foreign markets in order to maintain growth and profitability. During early stages, the firm does this through exports using the services of overseas sales agent, who are independent of the exporting firm. In the second stage, the process of gaining control over its foreign sales is achieved by setting up its own sales outlets. This can be done in two ways, either by setting up an entirely new outlet or by acquiring local firm. When the firm performs better and acquires good profits, it decides on establishment of entire production facilities with consideration of its favourable factors in a foreign market. Figure1 shows the path of development of a firm in the evolution of a transnational corporation. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In a network perspective, the process of internationalization is like creating new relationships or building on existing relationships in international markets, with the focus shifting from the organizational to that of social. It is people who make decisions and take the actions. The series of networks are considered at three levels: Macro, Inter-organizational and Intra-organizational. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In network theory, the business environment is seen as a set of diverse interests, powers, characteristics which advances on national and international business decisions. At macro- level, a firm has to break old relationships or add new ones to enter new markets. A new entrant finds difficult to break into a market that already has stable relationship. Such firms are able to reconfigure the existing networks, thus more successful in internationalization process. At Inter-organizational level, firms are good in different relationships to one another in different markets. They may be competitors in one market, collaborators in other and ‘suppliers and customers to each other in a third. Thus, if one firm internationalizes it draws other firms into international production. At intra-organizational level, relations within the organization influence the decision making process. If a transnational corporation has its subsidiaries in other countries, decisions taken at the subsidiary level increases the degree of international involvement of the parent TNC, depending on the degree of decentralization of decision making by the firm. (Wall and Rees, 2004) The various theories explain the process of internationalization and results in the firms motivation for engaging in transnational operations. When a firm decides to establish a production facility in the foreign market it mainly focuses its interests in terms of size of the market and availability of requirements which are useful for the production facility. Though firms motivation in transnational production is highly individual, still it can be broadly classified into two categories: Market Orientation and Asset Orientation. (Dicken, 2007) Most foreign direct investment in the process of transnational production is designed to serve a specific location market by taking consideration of market size and other conditions. The goods and services produced in the foreign country are almost identical to that being produced in the firms home country but the firm modifies its products slightly in order to gain the tastes and preferences of the local market. Market oriented investment is a form of horizontal expansion across national boundaries which concentrates on three factors in making up the decision of the location. The most important factor is a size of the market measured in terms of per-capita income rather than in terms of population. For example, countries in Europe and US, though they have less population, their per-capita income is high. Population in countries with low income levels spend larger portion of their income on basic necessities while people in countries with high income levels spend higher portion of th eir income on higher order manufacture goods and services. The last important factor for market oriented production is accessibility into the markets (transportation) and other political barriers. (Dicken, 2007) The choice of strategy for transnational production will be influenced by the reasons for becoming transnational. Foreign direct investment is designed to take advantage of the fact that the various assets that a firm needs to produce are not available in the same quantity and quality everywhere. So, it is important for a firm to consider about asset orientated production when it becomes transnational. It is broadly classified into two ways: Technology and labour. Firm benefits from the production costs if there are low labour costs along with high technology. Variations in wage costs, labour productivity and knowledge and skills constitute asset based advantages to the firm becoming transnational. Once a firm has decided to go international, it takes place in wide variety of ways, most of which can be classified into three broad categories: Export based methods Non- equity methods Equity methods Export based methods for internationalization It is the most common way in which a firm becomes international, by producing its products in the domestic markets but exports a proportion of its products to foreign markets. Exporting is an oldest and straight forward way of carrying international business. Its growth can be reduced to the liberalisation of trade that has taken place globally and within regional trading blocs due to concept of free trade like European Union (EU), NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association), ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations), and APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Corporation). The export based methods of internationalizing are divided into ‘indirect exporting and ‘direct exporting. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Indirect exporting: When a firm does not have any international activity by itself then it operates through intermediaries for physical distribution of goods and services in the foreign market. Initially an export house buys products from domestic firm and sells them abroad on its own account. A confirming house acts for foreign buyers where it brings sellers and buyers into direct contact and guarantee payments on a commission basis. Finally a buying house performs functions in seeking out sellers to match buyers particular needs. Direct exporting: In this form a firm is directly involved in distributing and selling its own products to the foreign markets. It is long term commitment to a particular foreign market with the firm choosing local agents and distributors specific to that market. It allows the exporter to monitor developments and competitions in the host market. It promotes interaction between producer and end user with long term commitments such as providing after sales services to encourage repeat purchases. Non- Equity based methods for internationalization In this form of internationalization, the firm either sells technology or do business in the form of contract, involving patents, trademarks and copyrights. It is often referred to as intellectual property rights and form major part of international transactions. This non-equity method of internationalization takes into forms of licensing, franchising or other types of contractual agreement. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Licensing: It is a permission granted by the licensor (proprietary owner) to a licensee (foreign party) in the form of a contract to engage in an activity which is otherwise legally forbidden. The licensee buys the right to exploit technology and products from the licensor, which is protected by the intellectual property rights like patent, trademark or copyright. The licensor benefits from the licensees local knowledge and distribution channels; also it is a low cost strategy for internationalization since the foreign entrant makes little or no resource commitment. This type of agreement is mostly found in industries like RD and other industries where fixed costs are high. (Rugman and Hodgetts, 2003) Franchising: In this form, the franchisee purchases the right to undertake business activity using the franchisors name or trademark rather than any patented technology. Many firms choose franchising as a means of internationalizing as it establishes firms business in short time with relatively little direct investment and creates global image through standard marketing approach. It allows franchiser a high degree of control and enables to understand the local taste and preferences in the foreign country. For example, Coca-Colas franchising arrangements with various partners in different countries has given an advantage over its arch rival PepsiCo. Franchising also helps in building up global brand which can be cultivated and standardised overtime. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Other contractual modes of internationalization: Besides licensing and franchising, Management contracting is another form of internationalization where a supplier in one country provides certain ongoing management functions to a client in another country. Examples include technical service agreements are provided across borders, as when a company outsources its operations to a foreign firm. Contract-based partnerships are also formed between different nationalities in order to share the cost of an investment. For example, pharmaceutical companies, automobile companies make agreements between themselves to include cooperation, co-research and co-development activities. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Equity based methods for internationalization When a firm physically invests in any another country, it is referred as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The major advantage of this method is that the firm has greatest level of control over its proprietary information and technology. A firm can use different ways to FDI by acquiring an existing firm, creating equity joint ventures, merging or establishing a foreign operation by its own (green-field investment). (De Propris, L., 2009) Acquisition and Establishment of a firm by its own (green-field investment): Acquisition of an existing foreign company has a number of advantages compared to green-field investment. For example, it allows an immediate presence in the market which results in a fast returns on capital and ready access to knowledge of the local market. Also, problems associated with green-field investments such as cultural, legal and management issues are avoided. Joint Ventures: It involves creating a new identity in which both the initiating partners take active roles in formulating strategy and making decisions. It helps to share technologies and lower the costs of high risks in various development projects. Joint Ventures make firm to gain economics of scale and scope in value adding activities on a global basis. It creates a firm to secure access to partners technology and accumulate learning process which is used for more effective future competition in the industry. Joint Ventures are common in high technology industries; it usually takes one of the two forms: Specialized Joint Ventures and Shared value added Joint Ventures. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In Specialized Joint Ventures, each partner brings a specific competency like one firm might indulge in a function of production and other does with marketing. For example organizations like JVC (Japan) and Thomson (France) have been into specialized Joint Venture where JVC contributed the specialized skills involved the manufacturing technologies needed to produce optical and compact discs, semiconductors while Thomson contributed the specific marketing skills needed to compete in European markets. In Shared value added Joint Ventures, both partners contributed to same function or value added activity. For example in the case of Fuji-Xerox, it is a shared value added Joint Venture with the design, production and marketing function all shared between two firms. Merging with a firm: In this equity based method for internationalization, a firm uses FDI by merging with a firm in the foreign country by buying its stake and holding appropriate ownership in the form of equities. It helps to extend its business rapidly and can use its infrastructure and knowledge about local market to improve its market share compared to its competitors. In equity based methods for internationalization, creation of consortium is one of the oldest forms of foreign direct investment. East Asian business models like Japanese Keiretsu and South Korean chaebols are more successful in building cross industry consortia when compared to western countries. Consortium of these types are sophisticated forms of strategic alliances designed to maximise the benefits like risk sharing, cost reductions, economies of scale etc .They tend to have long term and stable inter firm relationships based on mutual obligations in order to be forerunner of technology based industries. The Japanese Keiretsu is a combination of 20-25 different industrial companies centred on a large traditional company where transactions conducted through alliances of affiliated companies. It is divided into two forms, horizontal keiretsu which consists of highly diversified groups which are organized around core bank and general trading company (For example, Mitsubishi, Mitsui and Sanwa). Vertical Keiretsu is organized around a large parent company in a specific industry like Toshiba, Toyota and Sony etc. There are strong linkages between these two forms and the organization is extremely complex and wide reaching. (De Propris, L., 2009 and Wall and Rees, 2004) The South Korean chaebols, usually dominated by the founding families are similar consortia which are centred on a holding company. While a Keiretsu is financed by group banks and run by professional managers, chaebols get their funding from governments and are managed by family members. Examples include Samsung, Daewoo etc are industrialist families and the company keeps the stock in family hands. (Wall and Rees, 2004) When a firm becomes transnational, it has specific impacts on both host economies and home economies. The impacts like transfer of resources, capital, technology, an increase of employment, concerns about sovereignty and trade and balance of payments occur on the host economy. The specific impacts on home economies will be like loss of technology, sovereignty, loss of employment and tax avoidance. Conclusion In the process of globalisation, a firm operates their activities globally and the internationalisation process is one of the primary sites of attention. The changes in the technology in the fields of telecommunications and computer lessen the costs of cross border operations and encourage firms to engage in transnational production activities. Internationalisation is a sequential process where firms internalise their economic activities characterised in terms of aggressiveness and motivated by either internal or external triggers or a combination of both. It is one of the key strategic decisions for firms to maximise or at least sustain profits to survive in the world of uncertainty and complexity. The global economic expansion has been largely facilitated by the growth of TNCs. They dominate world trade and capital movement with turnover exceeding the GNP of some countries. These corporations continue to grow and influence the landscape of the world economy. The various motives for the firms internationalization process has been discussed and the ways in which firm use FDI to engage in the transnational production makes it to compete globally. It seems clear that theories of internationalization make the firm to take up decision to become transnational with each specifying its implications and benefits. Dunnings eclectic paradigm emphasis on OLI advantages, stating a firm will engage in international production when each of the following three conditions is present. The various theories explain the process of internationalization and when a firm decides to establish a production facility in the foreign market it focuses mainly on the market size. Though firms motivation in transnational production is highly individual, still it is classified into Market Orientation and Asset Orientation which states the conditions for the firm to become transnational corporation. When firm decides to go international the various methods of internationalization like equity based, non equity based, export based are used to engage its production activities in terms of a trade off between ownership and market transactions. References Buckley, P.J., Ghauri, P.N., 1999, â€Å"The Internationalization of the firm†, 2nd Edition, London: Thomson. De Propris, L., 2009, Lecture slides on The Nature of Transnational Corporation and From TNCs to global production networks, Lecture 4 5. Dicken, P., 1992, â€Å"Global Shift: The Internationalisation of Economic Activity†, 2nd Edition, London: Paul Chapman. Dicken, P., 2003, â€Å"Global Shift: Reshaping the global economic map in the 21st century†, 4th Edition, London: Sage. Dicken, P., 2007, â€Å"Global Shift: Mapping the changing contours of the world economy†, 5th Edition, London: Sage. Dunning, J. H., â€Å"Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy†, Workingham: Addison-Weslay, 1994. Hymer, S., â€Å"The Multinational Corporation and the law of uneven development†, in Radice, H., 1975 â€Å"International firms and modern imperialism†, Harmond-sworth: Penguin. Nilsson, J.E., Dicken, P., Peck, J., 1996, â€Å"Internationalization Process: European firms in global competition†, Ed, London: Paul Chapman. Rugman, A.M., and Hodgetts, R.M., 2003 â€Å"International Business†, 3rd Edition, England: Pearson. Walls, S., and Rees, B., 2004, â€Å"International Business†, 2nd Edition, England: Pearson, pp: 34-64. Wattanasupachoke, T., (2002) â€Å"Internationalization: Motives and Consequences†, ABAC Journal, 22, 16-30. Whitley, R., 1994, â€Å"The Internationalization of Firms and Markets: Its Significance and Institutional Structuring†, Organization Journal, 1, 101.

How Does Nutrition Affect Athletic Performances Physical Education Essay

How Does Nutrition Affect Athletic Performances Physical Education Essay Athletes are dedicated to their sport. They exercise daily, train with professionals, perform weight lifting, engage in team practices, and athletes compare their performances with opponents. All this commitment is an effort to make the human body work more efficiently. Continuous exercise and training strengthens the muscles to work better in conjunction with the bones. Baseball pitchers would want to train the arm muscles to throw a blazing fast pitch, long distance runners would work to control the respiratory system in order to finish strong at the end of an extensive race, and football players build on agility and muscular endurance sequentially outrunning the opponent. Todays athletic generation has cause competiveness in sports to reach unprecedented levels. However, are athletes consuming the right foods to fulfill these activities? Adequate nutrition is an integral aspect to athletic performance. Athletes that demand for higher performance in their sports or training, should have a high nutritional value in relation to their activities. This will require healthy eating habits between activities. It is critical to maintain a balance healthy diet before and after performance in order to achieve maximum performance. A good diet with adequate nutrition such as calories, vitamins, minerals, protein and water will help provide the energy required to carry out the activity. Athletes acquire energy from the foods they eat. Food can be further divided into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients supply an athlete with direct sources of energy for daily life activities and physical exercise. Macronutrients include proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Micronutrients aid in the processes of life, such as digestion and food metabolism. They are not able to provide energy, but they are essential in generating energy for the human body. Examples of micronutrients are: vitamins and minerals. Protein is a macronutrient involved in many chemical processes of life. Proteins are specialized for different organs and species. Proteins are combinations of amino acids that combine in various ways to make muscle, bones, tendons, skin and many other tissues. When proteins are broken down by the body at ingestion, amino acids are formed. There are 20 amino acids which help form human proteins, however only 9 are essential. Meaning 9 out of the 20 proteins are supplied by the food we eat, because the human body is unable to produce them through synthetic processes in the cell. Protein is one of the components in body tissues, necessary for cell growth and repair, as well as in hormones, enzymes, the immune system, and body fluids. Athletes need protein primarily to repair and rebuild muscle that is broken down during physical exercise. It also aids in optimizing carbohydrate storage. Protein is the last source of energy used when other macronutrients are available. When the body lac ks adequate carbohydrate, the body turns to protein as a source of fuel for physical activity. During extreme physical activity, muscle tissue becomes an energy source because there is an insufficient amount of fat and carbohydrate consumed. Therefore it is necessary to maintain a balance of protein intake everyday, to make up for the protein lost in the muscle tissue during an increase in intensity when training. Research has shown an amino acid known as creatine can help enhance athletic performance. Derived from other amino acids, glycine, arginine, and methionine, creatine is stored in the skeletal muscle as creatine phosphate. The job of creatine phosphate is to help facilitate the production of energy. With an increase store of creatine phosphate in the body, the ability to produce energy during high intensity training is improved. As well, the googelpeed of recovery after the exercise will improve. Athletes can obtain creatine primarily from meat and fish. Carbohydrates are the primary fuel for the exercising muscles and are essential for supporting an athletes training and performance. They are the major energy source for anaerobic and aerobic activity. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose molecules and stored in our skeletal muscles and liver as glycogen. The amount of glycogen stored affects stamina and endurance. After an athlete is done training, glycogen is released from the liver into the bloodstream to restore the glucose levels in the blood and glucose is transported to cells for energy. If the blood glucose levels are low, athletes may feel irritable, tired, and lack concentration interfering with their performance. Glycogen stored in the skeletal muscles provides fuel for the exercising muscles during high and low-intensity activities. There are limited carbohydrate reserves in the body and exercising causes the glycogen stores to become depleted very quickly. During exercise, muscle cells run out of glycogen, the musc les lack energy and fatigue sets in. The performance will suffer, but will vary depending on the sport and its intensity. Therefore, daily carbohydrate consumption and training is necessary to maintain glycogen for optimal performance. In order for athletes to obtain enough energy to maximize athletic efforts, carbohydrates also aid in fat metabolism. The presence of carbohydrates is essential in utilizing fat for energy. In general, endurance athletes use up more carbohydrates than athletes that use energy fro strength and power. To explain this, because endurance athletes are participating in physical activity over a longer period of time, a greater amount of carbohydrates is required by the body to supply the energy for the duration. Whereas athletes involved in strength and power events require less amount of carbohydrates needed by the body to supply a sudden burst of energy for powerful but short-lived physical actions. Athletes should choose foods that provide the most carboh ydrates per calorie. Adequate intake of carbohydrates will prevent protein from being used as energy. When protein in used as a subsidiary, it is broken down to make glucose for energy. As a result the body limits its ability in developing and maintaining tissues, because protein is stressed upon for energy. Ideal sources of carbohydrates include: whole-grain cereal, pasta, brown rice, and bread products. As part of a healthy diet, athletes should include at least two carbohydrate-rich foods accompanying each meal, and at least one with every snack. Prior to competitions, athletes like to load muscles with glycogen to delay fatigue that occurs during endurance events. A diet that contains high nutritious carbohydrates of 55-65% of total calories, is sufficient enough to provide adequate glycogen storages that will help support the athlete in the duration of their performance. Fat is the predominant fuel source during prolonged exercise. The body has unlimited storage capacity for fat, which makes it the largest reserve of energy in the body. It is integral for many metabolic processes including energy production, synthesis of vitamin D, cholesterol, hormones, and transporters of lipid soluble vitamins. Fat can be classified into two categories based on its structure: unsaturated and saturated fats. Unsaturated fats are obtained from plant sources. Advantages of unsaturated fats include lowering cholesterol and reducing the risk of heart disease. Saturated fats on the other hand, come from animal sources and cheese. Saturated fats are not recommended in large consumption to athletes, because an excess of this macronutrient will raise cholesterol or lipid levels in the blood and lead to heart diseases. However fats do hold its place in sports nutrition. Fats are less oxygen-rich, but they can release a greater amount of energy at a greater speed than other nutrients. This will provide an athlete with a concentrated source of energy. Fat becomes calories that are less accessible to athletes performing short-lived activities. Fat is essential for longer and lower intensity endurance exercises. Fats play a second major role in the body, insulation. Fats assist in insulating and protecting vital organs and parts of the body. Athletes can obtain fat from food sources such as milk, butter, meat and oils. Athletes need to carefully monitor the type and the amount of fats they eat. Vitamins are essential micronutrients athletes need to produce energy. Mostly vitamins come from the food we eat, with the exception of vitamin D. Instead of participating in the metabolic processes of nutrients, vitamins help to regulate the reactions in metabolic processes. Vitamins are responsible in facilitating energy release and synthesizing bone and tissue. Absence of a vitamin prevents certain metabolic processes to occur in the cell, and eventually affects the metabolic balance in the body as a whole. Another micronutrient occurs naturally on earth. It is found in the earths waters, soil, and the plants we eat. This micronutrient is known as the mineral. There are seven key minerals: calcium, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and sulphur. Two minerals that deserve special attention from athletes are iron and calcium. Iron is a main component in the blood. It is critical for red blood cell formation, function and myoglobin composition. Iron operates in the blood as oxygen carriers, a key role in sport performance. If iron levels are low, athletes develop signs of tiredness, poor appetite and an increase in resting pulse rate. This results because inefficient supply of oxygen is distributed to parts of the body. Oxygen combines with glucose to form ATP molecules, the main source of energy for muscles. The greater amount of ATP is stored in the muscles, the more powerful they will be when it performs work. However, when iron levels are low in the blood, muscles do not receive enough oxygen to support exertion. This results in lactic acid being produced and the athlete to endure pain and fatigue in the muscles. Also excess amounts of oxygen in the body help athletes to metabolize lactic acid back to useful energy molecules after exercise. This allows the muscles of athletes to recover faster and be able to carry out physical activity again without resting for long periods of time. Iron can be obtained from many food sources including cereals, red meats, and bread products. When athletes want to develop stronger bones, they think of calcium. Calcium is a micronutrient from the popular dairy food group, comprised of milk, yogurt and cheese. 99 percent of the calcium in our body is stored in the skeletal system, while the remaining 1 percent is accumulated in the muscle cells. During muscle contraction, calcium ions are released to trigger the process. Calcium ions are released into the sarcoplasm and then they find their way to attach onto the troponin molecules. Without the attachment of troponin molecules and calcium, the interaction of actin and myosin leading to muscle contraction will not occur. Thus, if muscle contractions are not generated, athletes are unable to perform their activity. Low calcium levels in the body are in relation to developing low bone density. This causes the bones of the body to become more fragile and vulnerable to stress fractures, as the limiting amount of calcium will be used for muscle contraction. Therefore in order for athletes to withstand intense physical activity, an adequate amount of calcium should be included in their meals. Lastly athletes need to stay hydrated for optimal performance. The human body consumes energy during physical exercise and creates heat. The bodys temperature would rise drastically, causing the body to overheat if heat was not released. In conjunction with the release of heat, the bodys sweat glands discharge fluid to the surface of the skin and evaporate. This overall process is an effort to cool the body, however the body must pay for the cost of dehydration. Water comprises 50-60 percent of the weight in human bodies. This portion of water in the human body helps to regulate heat and maintain a constant body temperature. Water helps to transport nutrients to cells and extract waste products. Water distributes the heat generated by physical activity throughout the body and enables the body to perspire. In general fluids, not just water, are lost when humans perspire, urinate, through feces, and respiration. This is particularly important for athletes because they are under physica lly active conditions. A constant replacement of fluids is necessary for the human body to continue to operate and achieve its optimal performance. Research have discovered when athletes sweat, they lose 1-2% of body weight which is linked to a decrease in blood volume. This process manipulates the heart to work harder to circulate the blood, building up muscle cramps and dizziness. Athletes establish proper hydration by drinking the right fluids during physical activity. This means drinking fluids properly throughout the day when thirsty, and especially before an activity begins. In the course of a long competition, where fluid is being lost in sweat, sport drinks are good subsidiary fluids and electrolytes. The sodium levels in the drinks are ideal replacements of sodium secreted in sweat. Low sodium levels can affect concentration. In general it is not advised for athletes to drink sport drinks such as Gatorade, on a regular basis or every time they participate in physical activi ty. These fluids can interfere with the body absorbing the proper nutrients. The principle that underlies healthy eating and enhancing sports performance is to maintain a balance between the food we eat and the amount of energy that is going to be used for work. Since athletes participate actively in physical exercise, they will need to absorb more energy in the foods they eat. The above principle is expressed as an energy equation: Energy storage = Energy intake Energy output. Energy storage represents the amount of energy left in the body after the amount of energy used is reduced from the amount of energy taken in by the body. If athletes absorb insufficient amounts of energy from food sources, optimal performance will not be achieved. Muscles will weaken without nutrients and negative health consequences become a concern for athletes. Athletes spend many hours training and undergoing physical activity so the body can excel in sport performances. It is important that athletes keep their bodies nourished in order to supply fuel for athletic endeavours. It is necessary for athletes to develop a focus on maintaining proper nutrition, so the hours spent during physical activity and rest are not subjected to waste. Good nutritional habits are necessary to achieve optimal physical performance, however it does not mean that we should differentiate foods into good or bad. To maintain a healthy lifestyle, athletes should consume foods from various food groups and make better food choices at the same time. Daily food choices should include macronutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, and fat, micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals, and most importantly fluids, commonly water. Athletes are better equipped to meet their maximal athletic potential if the right foods are taken in the right amounts to fuel the body. Great athletic accomplishments are determined by good nutrition.

The Controversy Over Land Grazing :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

The Controversy Over Land Grazing Years before ranchers and cowboys were thinking about the cattle business, hundreds of thousands of buffalo once roamed the Great Plains eating everything in their path. They were not worried about overgrazing or abusing the land; all they cared about was surviving to the next day. The buffalo did not ruin the ground they went across, and the grass grew back just fine for the buffalo to eat the next year. This proves that if used properly, livestock grazing will not hurt the land, but will mimic the natural pattern of buffalo. Public land grazing is both logical and beneficial to America's national parks and forests (Savory and Butterfield). The Cost of public land grazing is one point of concern for many people. They believe that the government does not charge enough for the use of public land for livestock grazing. These people feel that the ranchers are getting to use the pasture for a minimal amount. According to the Center for Biological Diversity, "The average rent for non-irrigated range land in the West is about $11.90, while the cost of grazing fees on federal land is about $1.43 per animal per month (AUM)." AUM are initials for Animal-Unit Month. The AUM is the cost of one horse, or five sheep, or one cow with calf at side, for the forage they would eat for one month. The people who want to take away public land grazing do not take into consideration all the time and work the ranchers put in to make the land better. They are constantly riding the pastures, making sure that the pastures are being used properly and that there is no overgrazing taking place. Also, the ranchers make sure that ponds are kept in quality condition and if they are not, it is their job to get the ponds dug out or whatever it takes to make the ponds better. The costs of the repairs are at the expenses of the ranchers. Ranchers do a lot of other things like put up electric fence to insure rotational grazing, cut trails to make paths easier, and more to improve the quality of the land (Smith). According to Mark Smith, a local rancher, "Ranchers could spend over 100 hours working on all these different projects to improve the land if they have a pool rider." A pool rider is somebody who is hired to ride and look after the cows.

An Emotional Slave in The Slave Dancer :: Slave Dancer Essays

An Emotional Slave in The Slave Dancer I found The Slave Dancer, by Paula Fox, to be a very commendable historical fiction. When I had finished reading the final sentence, I was left with a feeling of appreciation. I felt imperfect. For it easily could have been my ancestors who tortured the multitudes of helpless slaves. The Slave Dancer was a difficult book to get into, but it soon captured my interest and turned into an excellent, yet emotional, piece of literature. The Slave Dancer was a story that was so real and likewise so powerful. It was such an immaculate piece of work that it should be read by all. I truly enjoyed the main character, Jessie. He was slowly, throughout the story, transformed from an innocent young boy, captured and taken aboard a slave ship to play his fife to "dance the slaves", into a man who realizes the true meaning of friendship, life, survival, hardships, and love. Paula Fox's writing style is very admirable, and it genuinely shows with this Newberry Honor wining book. There were few things I disliked about this book. I disliked the beginning of The Slave Dancer because it was a very difficult book to get into. I did not like the lack of detail when it came to describing the crew members aboard The Moonlight, which is the name of the slave ship. The book kept referring to crew members, and I could not tell them apart. I could not picture something different about each one of them. I believe that The Slave Dancer would help everyone understand the misfortune that all of the African slaves went through. I anticipate that there will be some who would not enjoy this book, however, I think that everybody should read The Slave Dancer. I would certainly read this book again and still benefit from its text. I recommend this book to all who have lost the true meaning of appreciation and wish to grasp that significance once again. After reading The Slave Dancer I was transposed into a different person. I was more aware of the views of each person and each cherished life. I took back a lesson; a sad lesson. I was reminded of how precious every person's life is, and how just one experience can change one's perspective of life.

Essay --

Throughout the course of science, animal cloning has been occurring for many years. Due to the newly developed technology, it has opened up the idea of cloning human. Cloning is â€Å"A DNA sequence, such as a gene, that is transferred from one organism to another and replicated by genetic engineering techniques.† This method happens asexually and can only be found in certain bacteria and plants. For human cloning to occur it will have to be done outside of the physical human body, where an egg is taken and DNA is inserted and then it is put back into the womb for development. There may be many benefits to human cloning, but there are many ethical concerns that many arise in idea of human cloning. In Leon R. Kass article Cloning of Human Beings, Kass â€Å"urges the commission to declare human cloning deeply unethical and to recommend a legal ban.† (Kass 577) In order to fully understand the ethical concerns that may arise in the idea of human cloning and genetic engineering, lets define the two. Kass defines cloning as a form of asexual reproduction in which an individual or individuals are created up to be genetically identical to and already living organism, by the form of a test tube in a lab. The notion of human cloning involved the extraction of an unfertilized egg from a woman, and the removal of the nucleus which homes all the genetic information, and replacing it with the nucleus from the specialized cell of another organism. According to the Webster’s dictionary, genetic engineering is the â€Å"scientific alteration of the structure of genetic material in a living organism. It involves the production and use of recombinant DNA and has been employed t o create bacteria that synthesize insulin and other human proteins.† Kass states ... ... In my opinion, I think that being born a clone is one thing, but the fact of living up to the expectations of the person your parents never got to be is merely wrong and unethical. The issue brought up many time is the fact that human cloning has not been proven to result in a healthy cloned baby with no defect, so my question is if the baby is born with defects what are they to do sue their â€Å"parents†? In addition, if the cloned baby is born with many defects, what are the parents to do? Throw that baby away and keep trying the process of cloning until they have the perfect baby, now this will raise other ethical concerns. Living the life as a genetic creation, created I a laboratory with a group of scientist is just an awkward thought. These are only some the mental issues about cloning that should be considered when the thought of human cloning is at hand.

Saying No to Bribes †The Infosys Way

Corruption is widespread in every walk of life in many parts of the world. It is difficult to define and identify corruption in black and white. Bribing is a form of corruption many corporate bodies try to indulge. Companies like Infosys disagreed with Government and other contractors who take to corruption considering it as the way of the world phenomenon. Ultimately, the Infosys strategy worked and the message to the corporate world is that honesty, transparency and fairness can make you win irrespective of the corrupt environment around you. This gives a new insight in to the Virtue Matrix and suggests that a new socially responsible corporate world is in the offing. Saying No to Bribes – The Infosys Way The Cut Out Tasks As a Regional Sales Manager of South East Asia, located in Philippines, I prefer to take the bull by the horns. I have a tough time meeting my corporate goals. There are competitors. I understand my responsibilities that I owe to my employer. I do not have the freedom to show an entirely antagonistic approach to the existing forms of corruption. But I certainly have the freedom to choose the gradient with which I could maneuver scenarios that involve bribing either directly or indirectly. I am proud of Narayana Murthy of Infosys who asked the customs official â€Å"What is the alternative to paying bribe? † and later he decided â€Å"We will just do that. † (Abdelal, Di Tella & Kothandaraman, 2007) It was a threatening moment for Infosys politically and financially at the start-up. The question was raised whether Narayana Murthy had succeeded in corporate governance by being anti-corrupt. The answer very much lies in the fact that the Indian Government awarded Narayana Murthy with the corporate governance award in 2000. Infosys grew fabulously. Today it is known for transparency, honesty and trustworthiness. Besides, it stands as a role model inspiring the corporate world. I would avert any situation that lures me towards corruption and solely benefits me. I would be religious in deciding between choices. The hypothetical case narrated by Narayana Murthy that ‘if he were traveling in Siberia alone and a lady was ready to have a consensual relationship with him, he would deny it’ is a fine example that conscience governs us in our walk of life (Abdelal, Di Tella, Kothandaraman, 2007). The Infosys Strategy Next, I would think from a different perspective – the Infosys strategy. If Infosys could say no to bribe and overcome difficult times at its start-up phase, why not my company? Where there is a will, there is a way. I would like to develop my team with a positive note and motivate the team members to vie for an identity. Identity is earned through honest practices, transparency, sincerity, by being qualitative and competent in business. The first and serious test for Infosys was threatening both financially and politically when they did not have an identity. At a later stage, Narayana Murthy noted â€Å"We have had zero trouble with customs since then† (Abdelal, Di Tella, Kothandaraman, 2007). Other companies like Tata Consulting Services and Wipro followed its path to remain non-corrupt in their dealings. When a company is given to corruption for whatsoever reason, there is no guarantee that it would be in compliance with socially responsible behaviors. Companies like Infosys with its honesty, integrity, and transparency, will be able to keep in tact the civil foundation at the time of less healthy economies. During troubled times, only the trusted senior management of a company can avert the risks involved to perform well in the strategic frontier of the Virtue Matrix. The able leadership ingrained with corporate virtue alone can work in the growth and interests of the company that maintains equilibrium among shareholders, employees, their communities, and the environment. Besides the above-mentioned factors, the role of Government is vital in assisting the companies with policies that are impartial and supportive. This in turn will help the companies build socially responsible relations. The Infosys strategy is certainly the right strategy to build the civil foundation in India but with expectations still awaiting from all sides. There is a growing trend of many companies following at least a minimal degree of social responsibility. This is an indication that building a civil foundation in India using Virtue Matrix is a near possibility. The Growing Trend in Asia The last three decades have witnessed a lot of political and economic changes in the Asian countries. The pressure and demand by the Non-Governmental Organizations, regulators and the social organizations on corporate companies are more. The combined effort of Non-Governmental Organizations and a strong legal system can drive away corruption and improve working conditions as it is already happening in South Asia. By and large many companies started showing interests in social and environmental responsibilities. The scope of stepping up this positive trend lies in wise adaptation of the Virtue Matrix by the companies in Asia. However, the fact that corruption in many Asian countries compared to many European countries is high, makes it difficult to bring a drastic change (Abdelal, Di Tella, & Kothandaraman, 2007). Guarding S and E Corruption is an epidemic which could spread down the hierarchy following the pecking order. Only if the top order is non-corrupt and lead by example, the others in the company will follow it. When honesty and integrity are flouted by bribing, the company cannot show an impeccable face towards Skills and Engagements. If at all it does, it is in the self interests of the company for the sake of revenue. The companies should have ethics and corporate virtue while developing technology. This will promote socially responsible attitudes and avoid infringing the rights or utilizing the skill sets to their advantage.

Factors Influencing Career Choice Among the Senior High School Students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF VOLTA REGION, GHANA DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA JULY, 2011 UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF VOLTA REGION, GHANA DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA (B. ED BUSINESS EDUCATION, ACCOUNTING OPTION)A Thesis in the Department of Psychology and Education, Faculty of EDUCATIONAL STUDIES Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, University of Education, Winneba, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for award of the Master of Philosophy (M. Phil Guidance & Counselling) degree JULY, 2011 DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA declare that this Thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all being identi fied and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhereSIGNATURE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. DATE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised by me in accordance with the guidelines for the supervision of Thesis laid down by the University of Education, Winneba. NAME OF SUPERVISOR: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..SIGNATURE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. DATE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my dearest wife Rose and children: Albert, Elikplim and Herbert. ABSTRACT The researcher set out to investigate factors that influence career choice among the senior high school students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana, and the extent to which those factors influence students’ choice.Survey design was used. The main instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. Simple random sample techniques was used to select 200 students, and convenient sampling techniques used to select three administrators and three guidance and counselling coordinators for the study from the three public second cycle institutions in the District. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analysing data. The construct validity was established using factor analysis and reliability using Cronbach’s alpha.The results of the main hypothesis and the research questions postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are controlled for. This helps students learn about and explore careers that ultimately lead to career choice. This played a critical role in shaping students career choice.It was recommended that Career Education and Guidance should be introduced in the primary school to enable children to explore the world of work as young people need to make a smooth transition from primary school to the initial years of senior high school and t he Ministry of Education should allocate fund for a Guidance and Counselling activities in all basic and second cycle schools. This will enable the guidance coordinators to function effectively at their various levels of work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTI am most grateful to the Almighty God for His loving care and mercy which has made it possible for me to complete this work. I also wish to acknowledge with gratitude, the encouragement, corrections and guidance given to me by Mrs. Mary A. Ackummey and Professor M. F. Alonge, my supervisor and co-supervisor respectively for this work to be completed. I am also grateful to Professor J. K. Aboagye, the Head of Department and Dr. Richard Ofori, the Director for research at the National Centre for Research into Basic Education (NCRIBE) for their immerse assistance.He also became my final supervisor to make this work complete. I wish to express my appreciation to Messrs K. T. Agor and C. F. K. Nyadudzi, the Headmasters of Sogakope Senior High School and Dabala Senior High Technical. And also Rev. Father Gbordzoe, the Principal of Comboni Technical Vocational Institute for their assistance in allowing me to administer my questionnaires in their schools. I am grateful to Mr. C. Y. Ablana who allowed me to use his office during the period.Finally I wish to express my gratitude to all those who help in diverse ways throughout the entire work for their criticism, encouragement and corrections. Special thanks go to Dr. Asare Amoah of Department of Psychology and Education who takes his time to see to it that the necessary corrections were carried out. TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENT PAGE Title PageDeclaration i Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgement iv Table of Content v List of Tables x List of Figures xiCHAPTER ONE 1. 1 Background to the Study 1 1. 2 Statement of the Problem 4 1. 3 Purpose of the Study 5 1. 4 Hypotheses 6 1. 5 Research Questions 6 1. 6 The Significance of the Study 6 1. 7Delimitation 7 1. 8 Definition of Term s 7 1. Organisation of the Study 8 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction 9 2. 2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice 9 2. 3 Career Decision Making 17 2. 3. 1 Trait-and-Factor Theory/ Actuarial Theory of Career Development 20 2. 3. 2 Holland’s Personality Type Theory 23 2. . 3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory 28 2. 3. 4 The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 31 2. 3. 5 Super’s Self-concept Theory 32 2. 3. 6 Four-Humors Theory 35 2. 3. 7 Social Cognitive Theory 39 2. 4 Types of Career 41 2. Barriers to career choice 43 2. 6 The Role of Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in Career Choice and Development 45 2. 7 The Implications of the Study 48 2. 8 Theoretical Framework of the Study 49 2. 8 Summary 57 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3. 1Introduction59 3. Research Design 59 3. 3 Population 59 3. 4 Sample and Sampling Procedure 61 3. 5 Study Area 62 3. 6 Instrumentation 62 3. 6. 1 Assessment of Validity and Reliability of facto rs influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 63 3. Method of Data Collection 66 3. 8Data Analysis 66 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 67 4. 1Analysis of Students’ Bio Data 67 4. 1. 1 Sex Distribution of Students 67 4. 1. Age Distribution of Students 68 4. 1. 3Programme Pursue by Students 69 4. 1. 4 Intended Careers of Students 70 4. 2 Testing of Main Hypothesis 71 4. 3 Testing of Auxiliary Hypotheses 73 4. 3. 1 Sex Differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 73 4. 3. Age Differences on Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 74 4. 4Analysis of Qualitative Data 76 4. 4. 1 Analysis of Bio Data collected from Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 76 4. 4. 2 Sex Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 4. 3 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 4. Position of Respondents 78 4. 4. 5 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidanc e and Counselling Coordinators in their various institutions 78 4. 5 Qualitative Analysis of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data 79 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 88 5. 1 Discussion 88 5. . 1 The Extent to which Intrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 88 5. 1. 2 The Extent to which Extrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 90 5. 1. 3 The Extent to which Interpersonal Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career91 5. 1. 4 Problems Students face in making their Career Choice 92 5. 2 Summary of the Findings 93 5. 3 Conclusion 95 5. 4Recommendations 95 5. Suggestions for Further Studies 97 References 98 Appendix â€Å"A†- Factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 105 Appendix â€Å"B†- Validated version of factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 109 Appendix â€Å"C†- Open ended question naire for Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 113 Appendix â€Å"D†- Population of final year students in the three public second cycle institutions for 2010/2011 Academic Year. 117 Appendix â€Å"E†- Letter of Introduction 119 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2. Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks 34 2. 2 Jobs suitable and jobs to be avoided by each personality type 39 3. 1 Population of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 60 3. 2Distribution of respondents by institutions 61 3. 3Item listings and factor loadings for the four-factor principal component solution 65 4. 1 Distribution of students by intended choice 71 4. Logistic regression model of career choice (white-collar job & blue-collar job) as a function of Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal factors. 73 4. 3 Summary statistics and Independent-samples T-test on their influence on the two sex groups 74 4. 4 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Extrinsic factors 75 4. 5ANOVA showing the effect of age on Intrinsic factors 75 4. 6 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Interpersonal factors 76 LIST OF FIGURESFigure Page 2. 1 Holland hexagonal model 27 2. 2 A diagram Reciprocal Causation 40 2. 3 Theoretical model of Career choice 57 4. 1 Sex Distribution of students. 68 4. 2 Age Distribution of students 69 4. 3 Distribution of the Respondents by Programme 70 4. 4 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance nd Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 5 Position of the Respondents 78 4. 6 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in their various institutions 78 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background to the Study The importance of career choice among senior high students cannot be over emphasized. Students at this level are mainly adolescents who are moving from this stage of development into adulthood. Pearson Education limited (2007) defines an adolescent as a young person, usually between the ages of twe lve and eighteen, who is developing into an adult.Encarta (2009) defines adolescent as, ‘somebody in the period preceding adulthood: somebody who has reached puberty but not yet adult’. At this stage the individual is said to be going through the period of adolescence. A comprehensive study conducted in America by Remmers and Raddler (1957) cited in Horrocks (1962) indicated that one-third of teenagers after finishing high school within six months expected to be at work, though know less about how to choose a job, train for it and establish in it. â€Å"A job is a kind of work and a career is time spent in one type of job area of interest† (Kelly-Plate and Volz-Patton, 1991, p. 13). Most students have very little help in developing a career direction while still in senior high school.They are often influenced by the media, peers, and with very little knowledge of what they might primarily be interested in or motivated to do. Most of them may have a level of uncer tainty of where to get help on how to choose a career. Since career is a lifelong plan, students at this level should be assisted to enable them have a clear cut plan as it will be difficult for them at their age to see things clearly about themselves. Thinking or making a decision about one’s career and making a choice is vital. Fry, Stoner and Hattwick (1998) opine that it is never too early to begin thinking about careers when in high school. Some students may have clear career direction in mind while many of them will have little clue as to which career is best for them.Fry et al, further said â€Å"even if you are a freshman or sophomore, now is the time to begin thinking about your life beyond college† p. 561. Various people choose jobs for various reasons. A lot of people look for jobs that will pay well since everyone needs money for the basics such as food, clothes, accommodation, education, recreation and others. For many men and women, work helps define thei r identity and their sense of self-worth (Thio, 1989). They see themselves as people, who are responsible, who get things done and capable enough to be paid for the services they render. People take pride in the work they do. They also like the feeling that comes with doing their work well.People enjoy using their skills, talents and working hard to improve those skills. People work to be useful, by working; people feel that they are contributing their quota to the development of the society. They may work to take care of themselves and their family or work to help other people in the society. Most people choose jobs that will enable them interact with others. For example, journalism, teaching, and selling enable one to interact with a whole lot of people. They do not like to be alone for a long period. Their job gives them the opportunity to be with others and talk to people. It is clear that work fulfils many important needs and even those who become rich overnight still work.Sinc e no one particular job satisfies all needs, the right job can be satisfying in a very special way, and that is why it is important to think carefully about one’s own wants, needs, interests and abilities before making a choice. One needs not to joke about his choice of career. Working should not be just occupying oneself. O’Toole (1973), cited in (Thio, 1989, p. 444) opines that People with satisfying jobs have better mental health than those with less satisfying work. Thus, people who are happy with their jobs also tend to have better physical health and to live longer. Although diet, exercise, medical care and genetics are all related to the incidence of heart disease, job dissatisfaction is more closely linked to the cause of death. Each individual is faced with choosing among the large areas of occupational cluster of work.Such as agriculture, business and office, communication and media, health, hospitality and recreation, manufacturing, marine science, construct ion, arts, humanity and sciences, home economics, marketing and distribution, natural resources and environment, personal services, public service, and transportation. Rao (1992) cited in Kankam & Onivehu (2000) identified two factors that call for guidance and counselling services or activities in secondary schools one of which is the making of academic choice that in the end determines the vocational future. The origin of vocational guidance can be traced to the United States of America. Educational guidance originated from the development of vocational guidance services.In 1908 the Vocational Bureau of Boston was formed under the auspices of an American lawyer and educator; Frank Parsons to assist young men make vocational choices based on their occupational aptitudes and interest (Fruehling, 2008). Guidance began to spread as a result of Parsons’ ideas. Brewer (1942) cited in Archer (1997) put across four conditions that work together to bring about the beginning and deve lopment of vocational guidance. These are: division of labour, the growth of technology, the extension of vocational education, and the spread of modern forms of democracy. The four elements listed above were however, intensified by the First World War which led to the shortage of skilled manpower.Though in Ghana vocational/technical can be traced back to the 19th century when both the Basel and Wesleyan missionaries made a shift from the initial three R’s – reading, writing and arithmetic to agricultural and technical curriculum (Hama, 2003), guidance in Ghana started in 1955 when the Ministry of Labour, Education and Social Welfare came together and established Youth Employment Department. Its aim was to cater for the needs of the unemployed middle school leavers below the age of twenty years. By 1960, there were about thirty of such centres in the country (Ackummey, 2003). 1. 2 Statement of the Problem Searching for a job, career planning and deciding on what to cho ose play an important role in students career choices.Many students often are faced with uncertainty and stress as they make career choices. Many of them do not make adequate research on their own career nor do they receive adequate directions from their school guidance coordinators. Most of them are not aware of what goes into career choice. Many youth go into unsuitable careers due to ignorance, inexperience, peer pressure, advice from friends, parents and teachers or as a result of the prestige attached to certain jobs without adequate vocational guidance and career counselling. Lawer (2007) researched on assessing the effectiveness of career guidance in senior secondary schools in Kumasi Metropolitan District.He concluded that majority of students were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations, conditions of work, earning and other rewards of occupation, and did not have better under standing of their career interest, aptitudes and abilities. This clearly shows that majority of them were not concerned about their future career. This situation compels one to ask whether they are given the needed guidance on available careers relating to the programmes they are pursuing. Are they aware of what goes into career choice? And what specific factors influence their choice and how do those factors influence them? This study therefore seeks to find out the extent to which intrinsic, extrinsic, and interpersonal factors influence the choice of career of senior high students. 1. 3 Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to identify those factors that influence students’ decision concerning choice of career in the South Tongu District and the extent to which these factors influence their choices. In addition, the study seeks to examine the differences between intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, and interpersonal factors in making career choice. It will also attempt to find out problems encountered by students in making their career choices. 4. Hypotheses The study sought to test a logistic regression model in which Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are assumed to influence students’ career (blue/white collar jobs) in the senior high schools.The following supplementary hypotheses were also tested: 1. There will be significant sex differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. 2. There will be significant age differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. 1. 5 Research Questions The following research questions were also used to guide the researcher to carry out the study. 1. To what extent do Intrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 2. To what extent do Extrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 3. To what extent do Interpersonal factors influence students’ choice of career? 4. What problems do students face in making their career cho ices? 1. The Significance of the Study Many factors affect career choices of senior high school students. Identifying these factors would give parents, educators, and industry an idea as to where students place most of their trust in the career selection process. It will not only focus on factors influencing career choice among students in the South Tongu District, but also highlight career decision making tools that have implications for career counselling. In addition, it will equally provide an update study into how intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors influence career choice for others who wish to further research into this area of study. 1. 7 DelimitationThe study focuses on what goes on in the South Tongu District instead of looking at the country as a whole, hence its application to the country or larger population may not be reliable. 1. 8 Definition of Terms For the purpose of this study the following operational definitions will be used: Intrinsic factors: includ e interest in the job and personality that satisfies work. In the broader sense they are basic and essential features which form part of someone rather than because of his or her association. Extrinsic factors: include availability of jobs and how well an occupation pays or brings benefit. They also include those essential features as a result of the individual’s associations or consequences.Interpersonal factors: include the influence of parents and significant others. It is concerned or involved relationships between people. Career: is a pattern of work related to preparations and experiences which is carried through a person’s life. Job: is a piece of work carried out for a pay. Work: physical and mental effort directed towards doing something. It is a job in the broader sense. Student: refers to a learner in a senior high school. | | 1. 9 Organisation of the Study The whole study was organized in five main chapters.The first chapter deals with the background to th e study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, hypotheses, and the significance of the study, delimitations, and definition of terms. The second chapter reviewed related literatures that are relevant to the study. It considers the previous studies on the topic. It includes other areas like factors influencing career choice, career decision-making, types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance co-ordinators in career choice, counselling implication of the study, theoretical framework of the study, and the summary of the literature review.Chapter three focuses on the methodology, the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, instrumentation- validity, reliability and method of collecting data and its analysis. Chapter four deals with data presentation and analysis, and finally, the fifth chapter covers discussion, summary of the major findings, conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for future study. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction This chapter deals with the review of related literature. It was organized under the following sub-headings: factors influencing vocational choice, career decision-making, Types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance coordinators in vocational guidance, counselling implications of the study, and the theoretical framework of the study.It ends with the summary of the literature review done. 2. 2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice Adolescent occupational choice is influenced by many factors, including intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors. Kankam & Onivehu (2000) indicate intellectual ability, aptitudes, the school, family, personality, self-esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences as factors that influence people’s choice of career. In the same year, Bedu-Addo (2000) states the following as factors influencing career choice: intellectual ability, apti tudes, the school, family, personality, self concept and self esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences.Similarly, Taylor and Buku (2006) also state abilities, needs and interests, stereotype/prestige, values, the school/educational attainment, family/parental, placement, and aspiration. Mankoe (2007) lists the following as factors that influence people’s choice of career: people’s interests, abilities and personalities, people’s occupational preferences, life and work satisfaction, and employment variables. Jones and Larke (2001) researched on factors influencing career choice of African American and Hispanic graduates of a Land-grant College of Agriculture. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the factors that were related to African American and Hispanic graduates' decisions to choose (or not to choose) a career in agriculture or a related field prior to or after college.The population for this study was all African American and Hispanic graduates who received a first degree in an agriculture-related field at Texas A & M University between May 1990 and December 1997. Five hundred and fifty-one questionnaires were mailed to respondents. The research design applied was Ex post facto and both descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The findings revealed that, various commonalities and differences existed among the two groups. When respondents enrolled in their first agriculture-related course did not have a major effect on their probability that they will select an agriculture-related career. However, the role of significant others and specific job-related factors is validated in this study.But having people who were not white to encourage respondents to consider an agriculture related career, increased respondents likelihood of pursuing an agriculture-related career. Respondents were more likely to pursue an agriculture-related career if their father’s occupation was agriculture-related. Par ents’ level of education did not play a critical role in the respondents’ choosing an agriculture-related career. Salary was not considered to have an impact on respondents’ choice of their current career nor on their choice of agriculture as a career. But having limited job opportunities in agriculture led respondents’ to choose other careers. Likewise, retirement plan and job opportunities impacted respondents’ selection of a career.Issa and Nwalo (2005) conducted a research on factors affecting the career choice of undergraduates in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. Data were analysed for frequency and percentage using the cross-tabs sub-programme of the SPSS. The study revealed that majority did not make the course as their first choice but ended up in the Library School as a last resort. However, those who did were influenced mostly by previous library work experience. Available sources of information on the course include pare nts/relations and peers. There are slightly more male librarianship students than females, indicating its popularity among both sexes. That 46. 9% of them were in the 22-26 age bracket showed that the younger undergraduates constitute the majority.The study concludes that despite the evidence of improved popularity of the programme among the respondents, it remains largely unpopular among prospective undergraduates in Nigeria when compared with such other courses as Accountancy, Medicine and Law. It thus recommends that public awareness about the profession and the programme be intensified by all stakeholders if it must attract some of the best brains in the country who can meet the challenges of the 21st century librarianship in Nigeria. This work was similar to that of Jones and Larke (2001) in purpose, sample and method except that while Jones and Larke focused on African American and Hispanic graduates of college of agriculture, that of Issa and Nwalo concentrated on undergradua tes in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. The research design applied and instrument used would be relevant to the present study.Myburgh (2005) researched on an empirical analysis of career choice factors that influence first-year Accounting students at the University of Pretoria: a cross-racial study. This cross-cultural study examined the career choices of Asian, black and white students at the University of Pretoria to identify the factors motivating Accountancy students to become chartered accountants (CA) as only two and halve percent (609) of 24, 308 registered chartered accountants in South Africa in 2005 were black, and only six percent (1,573) were Indian. Understanding the attitudes and the perceptions of CA first-year students can help course administrators/curriculum designers to align marketing and recruiting strategies with specific personal ccupational preferences of different racial groups enrolled for local CA courses. Survey design was used. Question naires are used in collecting data with a sample population of 550 and descriptive statistics used in analysis data collected. The finding revealed that performance in Accounting at school and the advice of parent, relatives and school teachers greatly influenced the students’ decision to become chartered accountants. All the three racial groups ranked availability of employment as the most important benefit of CA career and the employment security as the second most important. The cost of education and the difficulty of qualifying as a chartered accountant were identified as a problem.The purpose, sample and method used in data collection were similar to that of the above authors except that he focused on first year Accounting Students of the University of Pretoria. His finding on cost of education as a problem was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Borchert (2002). The methodology used here would be relevant to the current work. Trauth, Quesenberry & Huang (2008) researc hed into A Multicultural Analysis of Factors Influencing Career Choice for Women in the Information Technology (IT) Workforce. This article presents an analysis of cultural/actors influencing the career choices of women in the IT workforce. They employed the individual differences theory of gender and IT as a theoretical lens to analyze a qualitative data set of interviews with 200 women in different countries.The themes that emerged from this analysis speak to the influence of cultural attitudes about maternity, childcare, parental care and working outside the home on a woman’s choice of an IT career. In addition, several additional socio-cultural factors served to add further variation to gendered cultural influences: gendered career norms, social class; economic opportunity, and gender stereotypes about aptitude. These results lend further empirical support to the emergent individual differences theory of gender and IT that endeavours to theorize within-gender variation wi th respect to issues related to gender and IT. They also point to areas where educational and workplace interventions can be enacted.This work was similar to others as far as purpose is concerned; however, it focused just on women in the Information Technology Workforce. Borchert (2002) researched on career choice factors of high School Students. It aimed at finding out how influential were factors of personality, environment and opportunities in making career choice. The purpose of the study was to identify the most important factor within these three factors that 2002 Germantown High School senior students used in deciding upon career choices. A survey was the selected instrument device with a sample population of 325 and both descriptive statistics were used in analysing data collected. The finding revealed that, personality factors were identified as most important in choosing career.Environmental factors were not significant in making their choice, though they did not show outr ight disregard for them. There are opportunities for educational facilities and industries where students find themselves intellectually qualified for certain areas but lacked money needed to complete their training. His finding on lack of money to complete their training was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Myburgh (2005). The research design used, data collection procedure, and areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Ferry (2006) researched into Factors Influencing Career Choices of Adolescents and Young Adults in Rural Pennsylvania.The qualitative study reported here explored factors that play key roles in rural high school seniors and young adults career choice process. Interview was used in collecting data from 12 focus groups from 11-county rural areas in the central Pennsylvania using purposeful sampling. The cultural and social context of family and community were found to be instrumental in how youth learn about careers and influent ial in the choice process. The economic and social circumstances of the broader community coloured and influenced the youth perceptions of appropriate career choice. Extension strategies that target parents and community to increase their involvement in youth career selection can promote sound career decisions. This work was similar to that of Borchert (2002).However, it used interview and concentrated on a focus group. The areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Adjin (2004) researched into career choice in senior secondary schools: a case study of Sogakope Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools in the Volta Region of Ghana and used descriptive research design. He focused on factors that influence career choice, how proficient are the counsellors in handling students’ vocational problems in making career choice and ways of improving career/vocational education. He made use of stratified sampling with a sample population of 200 r espondents and descriptive statistics was used in analysis of data.The result of the study showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. Also majority of the students of Sogakope and Dabala second cycle schools received help from their parents/guardians in choosing career and some gave no reason for making their choices. Responses collected also indicated that there were guidance coordinators in the schools who organised talks on career choice, decision making and good study habits. However, other areas like problem solving, field trips/visit, group guidance/counselling, individual counselling were not all effective. His work was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method and target group.By contrast previous research by Amedzor (200 3) and subsequent researches by Annan (2006) and Edwards & Quinter (2011) showed prestige, personality, and advancement opportunities and learning experiences respectively as the most important factors that influence choice. The research design, instrument used and the areas covered in this work were similar to the present study. Amedzor (2003) researched on career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils in Ho Township basic schools and used descriptive survey design. It focused on career guidance needs of adolescents in the basic schools, factors that militate against effective guidance services and factors that facilitate the delivery of guidance services in schools. She used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and descriptive statistics used in analysis of data.Her research showed that, prestige was the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. A nd they also need financial support for training towards their chosen careers. Most of them shared the view that they need an expert to counsel them on how to choose, train, enter and be established in a career. Majority of the coordinators were not train, and guidance activities were below average and students were not willing to approach the coordinators. Her areas of assessment are covered in the current study. Though, the researcher looked at factors that influence choice like others, it mainly focused on identifying career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils.The sampling procedure, research design and instrument used were similar to the present study. Annan (2006) examined factors affecting career choice among senior secondary school students in Shama Ahanta East Metropolis and used descriptive survey design. He used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and also used descriptive statistics in analysis of data. This study revealed that person ality was most influential factor that influenced career choice among senior secondary students in Ahanta East Metropolis and significant others as the least factor taking into consideration (ability, personality, material benefit, home background, gender factors, and significant others).Adolescents have difficulties in how to choose a career and there was adolescent male gender biased in career choice as compared to female counterparts. It was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Adjin (2004), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method, and target group. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work. Edwards and Quinter (2011) researched on Factors Influencing Students Career Choices among Secondary School students in Kisumu Municipality, Kenya. The purpose of this study was to examine factors influencing career choice among form four secondary school students in Kisumu municipality, Kenya. The study was conducted us ing descriptive survey design with a population of 332 students.The data for this study was collected using questionnaire and interview schedules. The findings of this study indicate that availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences are the most influential factors affecting career choices among students. While males reported learning experiences and career flexibility as the most influential factors, females however reported availability of advancement opportunity and opportunity to apply skills as the most influential factors. However, no variance was reported for persons influencing career choice by gender. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work.Despite the fact that much has been written about the individual variables influencing career choice, the literature review however, revealed that very little empirical studies on this subject matter exist especially regarding the factors influencing career choice among senior hi gh students in the South Tongu District of the Volta Region, Ghana and the differences that exist among these factors. This study will, therefore, serve to fill up the missing gap in this aspect of the literature. 2. 3 Career Decision Making Decision making can defined as â€Å"an act of choice by which an executive selects one particular course of action from among possible alternatives for the attainment of a desired end or as a solution to a specific problem† (Attieku, Dorkey, Marfo-Yiadom & Tekyi, 2006). It involves conscious or unconscious attempt at making a choice out of competing alternatives. It implies selecting from alternative policies, procedures, and programmes.Career decision making is vital as the country is faced with the problem of unemployment which is the result of poverty and other social vices in the country. The previous Government introduced the Youth Employment Programme to address the situation. It aimed at facilitating job creation and placement of youth in the various economic ventures as well as social services in all districts throughout the country. The programme consists of ten modules out of the JHS/SHS graduates qualify to undertake: 1. Youth in Agri-Business 2. Community Protection System 3. Waste and Sanitation Management Corps 4. Auxiliary Health Care Workers’ Assistants (Micah, 2007). However was this able to eradicate the problem of unemployment? For the hild to make a better decision about choice of career he must be helped in the areas below: – Self awareness – Educational awareness – Career awareness – Career exploration, and – Career planning and decision making (Gibson & Mitchell, 1995). Self awareness: Each child must be aware of and respect his/her uniqueness at an early age as human beings. Knowledge about ones aptitude, interests, values, personality traits, abilities and others is very essential in the development of concepts related to self and the use of these c oncepts in career exploration (value clarification, group guidance films and video tapes written assignments and standardized test).Puplampu (1998) posit that for one to make good choices, he needs career guidance or career counselling, needs to be aware of him/her self, and to have knowledge of occupations and options available. Educational awareness: It is very essential in career planning for one to be aware of the relationship between self, educational opportunities and the world of work (group guidance, games related to hobbies and recreation, guided activities). Career awareness: Students at all levels of education should be assisted to have a continuous expansion of knowledge and awareness about the world of work. At each level students’ should be assisted to develop recognition of the relationships between values, life styles and careers (through films, career days, interest inventory).They are to be aware of relationships between desirable school habit– respon sibility, punctuality, efforts, positive human relationships and good worker traits. Career exploration: This represents a well designed, planned inquiry and analysis of career that are of interest. Comparisons, reality testing, and standardised testing, and computerised programmes may be useful. Career planning and decision making: Students at this level are to be helped to take control of their life and become an active agent for shaping their own future. They need to narrow down their career possibility and then move on to examine and test these options as critically as possible.Students need to be aware of the process of decision making and choosing between competitive alternatives, examining the consequences of specific choices, the value of compromise, and implementing a decision. Students are to recognise the impact of their current plan and decision making on their future. Knowledge about the above helps students to make informed decision and enable then to cope with career development tasks posed by the society during their school period. Students at this level are influenced by what they see around them- family, friends, neighbours, televisions or in movies. That is why experts suggest that students need to be aware of themselves, and the world around them in order to fully understand and make use of information about their individual interests and what exist beyond their immediate world.It is helping them to explore their likes and dislikes, expand their understanding of the world at large, and enhance their knowledge of how business works. The whole aim is to provide students with the broadest opportunity to learn and grow. In addition to the above, the following theories will also help the individual to be equipped with personality factors, environmental factors and other factors that influences choice of career. 1. Trait-and-factor Theory 2. John Holland Career Choice Typology 3. Anne Roe Personality/Need Theory 4. The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 5. Donald Super’s Developmental/self-concept Theory 6. Four- Humors Theory 7. Social-Cognitive Theory 2. 3. 1 Trait and Factor/Actuarial Theory of Career DevelopmentIt is also called matching or actuarial approach. It is referred to as the oldest theoretical approach to career development and Parsons as the originator (Kankam & Onivehu, 2000). It is based on the measurement of individual characteristics denoted as traits and factors. Traits refer to characteristics typical of the individual over time, relatively stable, consistent in situations and provide a basis for measuring, describing and predicting behaviour. Factor refers to a construct which represents a group of traits that correlate with each other. Williamson (1939, 1949) cited in Zunker (1990) was one of the prominent advocate of trait-and-factor counselling.Utilization of Williamson’s counselling procedures maintained the early impetus of trait-and-factor approach evolving from the works of Parsons. Even when integrated into other theories of career guidance, the trait-and factor approach plays a very important role. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie the trait-and-factor theory are: 1) Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potential 2) Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation.These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile 3) It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process. 4) The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction. Some assumptions of this theory by Miller, and Klein and Wiener are below: Miller a) Vocational development is a cognitive process b) Occupation is a single event; choice is greatly stressed over development c) There is a single ‘right’ occupation for everyone; there is no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations. ) Single person works in each job; one person- one job relationship e) Everyone has an occupational choice (http://faculty. tamu. commerce. educ/crrobinson/512/tandf. htm) Klein & Wiener a) Each individual has a unique set of traits that can be measured reliably and validly. b) Occupation require that workers possess certain traits for success c) Choice of occupation is straight forward process and matching is possible d) The closer the match between personal characteristics and job requirements, the greater the likelihood for success-productivity and satisfaction (http://faculty. tamu. commerce. educ/crrobinson/512/tandf. htm) It called for clear understanding of oneself.Knowledge of job requirements, conditions of success, and true reasoning in relation to these two groups of facts. This theory is used by many career practitioners in one form or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest tests and information materials that emerged from this approach have involved and remain in use up to now e. g. General Aptitude Test Battery, occupational profiles and ever expanding computer-based career guidance programmes. Trait-and- factor theory is criticised as not able to produce a perfect match between people and jobs (Walsh, 1990) and became increasingly unpopular in the 1970s, describe as going into ‘incipient decline’ (Crites, 1981).In essence, the trait-and-factor approach is far too narrow in scope to be considered as a major theory of career development. However, we should recognize that standardized assessment and occupational analysis procedures stressed in trait-and-factor approaches are useful in career counselling (Zunker, 1990). In addition to the above, trait -and-factor theory focuses on personality factors without considering the influence of environmental factor like availability of jobs to match the individuals’ trait and interpersonal factors in career choice. And can not provide enough bases for the current studies. 2. 3. 2 John Holland’s Vocational PersonalityJohn Holland’s theory shows that there is a match between an individual’s career choice and his or her personality and numerous variables that form their background (Zunker, 1990). According to this theorist, once individuals find a career that fits their personality, they are more likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time than individuals whose work do not suit their personality. He groups individuals into six basic personality types. Holland’s theory rests on four assumptions: 1. In our culture, persons can be categorized as one of the following: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Ente rprising, and Conventional. 2.There are six modal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. 3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. 4. Behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment (Bedu-Addo, 2000). According to Holland, realistic personality types are practical, stable, self-controlled, independent and down to earth. They enjoy working with their hands, especially in projects which allow one to be physically active, they may be a doer. These individuals are physically strong and have very little social know-how.They are oriented towards practical careers such as labour, farmer, truck driver, mechanic, construction work, engineer or surveyor, landscape architect, aircraft mechanic, dental technician, electrician, athletic trainer, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, archaeologi st, hairdresser, physical therapist, dressmaker, fire fighter, caterer, plumber, x-ray technician, etc. According to him, the investigative personality types are conceptually and theoretically oriented. Investigators are observant and curious about things around them. Typically they are inquisitive and intellectually self-confident as well as quite logical. They delight in situations that call for creative or analytical approach. They are thinkers rather than doers. They enjoy working on their own. They are best suited for careers that offer clearly defined procedures, research and the chance to explore a wide range of ideas are the best choices for investigating people, e. g. ractical nursing, medical lab assistant, pharmacist, ecologist, math teacher, medical technologist, research analyst, surgeon, dietician, physician, police detective, veterinarian, meteorologist, horticulturist, dentist, computer analyst, science teacher, technical writer, science lab technician, computer syst em analyst, military analyst, college professor, lawyer, consumer researcher, astronomer, computer security specialist, horticulture, emergency medical technology, respiratory therapy, surgical technology, dental assistant, water and waste technology, computer languages, computer sciences, economics, biochemistry, geology. According to Holland, artistic personality types are original, innovative, imaginative, and creative. They prefer situations that are relatively nstructured and interact with their world through artistic expression, avoiding conventional and interpersonal situations in many instances. They do well as painters, writers, or musicians, artist, English teacher, drama coach, music teacher, graphic designer, advertising manager, fashion illustrator, interior decorator, photographer, journalist, reporter, cosmetologist, librarian, museum curator, cartographer, dance instructor, entertainer, performer, architect, etc. According to theorist, social personality types are un derstandable, friendly and people oriented. These individuals often have good verbal skills and interpersonal relations. They are helpers and enjoy jobs that let them interact with people.They are well equipped to enter professions such as teacher, social worker, counsellor, youth services worker, recreation director, physical therapist, occupational therapist, extension agent, therapist, teacher, personnel director, funeral director, minister, chamber of commerce executive, athletic coach, claims adjuster, parole officer, attorney, sales representative, fitness instructor, cosmetologist, paramedic, mental health specialist, social worker, nurse, dietician, information clerk, child care worker, travel agent, airline personnel, receptionist, waiter/waitress, office worker, home health aide, career counsellor, etc. According to him, enterprising personality types are gregarious, dominant and adventurous. They are generally extroverted and will often initiate projects involving many pe ople and are good at convincing people to do things their way. They have strong interpersonal skills and enjoy work that brings them into contact with people.They are best counselled to enter career such as real estate appraiser, florist, lawyer, TV/radio announcer, branch manager, lobbyist, insurance manager, personnel recruiter, office manager, travel agent, advertising agent, advertising executive, politician, business manager. According to Holland, conventional personality type refers to those individuals who show a dislike for unstructured activities. They enjoy collecting and organizing information in effective and practical way. They are often like being part of large companies though not necessarily in leadership positions. They enjoy steady routines and following clearly defined procedures.They are best suited for jobs as subordinates, banker, file clerks, accountant, Business teacher, bookkeeper, actuary, librarian, proof reader, administrative assistant, credit manager, e stimator, cad operator, reservations agent, bank manager, cartographer cost analyst, court reporter, medical secretary, auditor statistician, financial analyst, safety inspector, tax consultant, insurance underwriter , computer operator, medical lab technologist, cashier, hotel clerk, etc. It has been employed as popular assessment tools such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and Strong Interest Inventory. Dictionary of Holland occupational Code came as a result of Holland’s work. John Holland created a hexagonal model that shows the relationship between the personality types and environments. [pic] Figure 2. 1: Holland Hexagonal Model It could be noticed that the personality types close to each other are more alike than those farther away.We can see this most clearly when we compare the personalities opposite each other, on the hexagon. For example, read the description of the types for Realistic and Social. You will see that they are virtually the opposite of each other. On the other hand, Social and Artistic are not that far apart. Holland topology is based on the following key concepts: Congruence: it refers to the degree of fit between an individual’s personality orientations and actual or contemplated work environment. One is believed to be more satisfied with his career and can perform better if he is in a congruent work environment. Consistency: it refers to the degree of relationship between types or the various classifications.Types that are adjacent on the hexagon have more in common than types that are opposite. For instance, the conventional type might be more realistic and enterprising than be artistic. Differentiation: it is the establishment of differences or a difference among two or more things. It refers to the degree to which a person or his environment is clearly defined. | | Vocational identity: extent to which a person has a clear self perception of his or her characteristics and goals, and to th e degree of stability which an occupational environment provides.Holland’s theory is criticised as basically descriptive with focus on explanation of casual basis of time period in development of hierarchies of the personal model styles. He was concerned with factors that influence career choice rather than development process that leads to career choice (Zunker, 1990). This theory focus mainly on how a personality can be matched with a career rather than how other factors like environmental and/or interpersonal factors influence the individual’s choice. It is therefore limited as far as the current research is concerned. 2. 3. 3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory Akinade, Sokan and Oserenren (1996) posit that this theory see one’s need as the main determinant of the nature of an individual’s interests including vocational interest.This theorist was of the view that career choice is based on childhood orientation or experience at home to satisfy ne eds; and that people choose occupation that satisfies important needs. This theory attempts to understand, make meaning of, and utilize individual motives, purposes and drives to support career development. She believed work can satisfy needs in different ways hence classification of occupation into eight groups. According to Roe (1956) cited in Zunker (1990), the first five can be classified as person-oriented and the last three as non-person oriented. 1. Service (something for another person); 2. Business contact (selling and supplying services); 3. Organisation (management in business, industry and government); 4.Technology (product maintenance, transportation of commodities ); 5. Outdoors (cultivating, preserving natural resources); 6. Science (scientific theory and its application); 7. General culture (preserving and transmitting cultural heritage) & 8. Arts and Entertainment (creative art and entertainment) Anne Roe’s theory was based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarc hy of needs stated in this order: 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Need for belongingness and love 4. Need for importance, respect, self-esteem and independence 5. Need for information 6. Need for understanding 7. Need for beauty and aesthetic 8. Need for self-actualization